Expeditions of Daniel Solander

Daniel Solander made two major expeditions, as a botanist and collector, with his friend and colleague, Sir Joseph Banks. This made Solander the greatest traveler of all of Linnaeus’s apostles.

Journies of Daniel Solander – South Seas, Iceland, and Brittain

Around the World (August 25, 1768 – July 12, 1771)

In 1768 Daniel Solander, Joseph Banks, and Bank’s staff of artists, scientists, and botanists joined Captain James Cook’s first expedition aboard the H.M.S Endeavour. Cook’s mission was to travel to the South Seas to view an astronomical event – the transit of Venus across the sun. After that, they were to receive orders for the rest of the expedition. The voyage lasted three years, and included visits to Madeira, Brazil, Argentina, French Polynesia, New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Java, South Africa and St. Helena.

Solander did not keep a journal, but you can get a feel of the expedition by reading the journal written by artist Sydney Parkinson (1745-1771). He describes through words and art, the expedition and the scientific team assembled by Banks. On the journey they collected 30,300 plants, from 3,607 species and 110 plant families. They identified 1,400 new species. They also collected samples of birds, fish, mollusks, and shells. Many of these came from Botanist Bay in Australia (later renamed to Botany Bay).

Solandra maxima – photo by Forest Starr and Kim Starr

 

Back in England

Upon return to England in 1771, Solander resumed his post at the British Museum, and became Banks’s secretary and librarian. Solander was presented to King George, and received an honorary Doctorate from Oxford University (he had never finished his degree at Uppsala University). There was talk of Banks and Solander joining Cook's second expedition, but it fell through. From 1772 – 1773, Banks and Solander made several smaller scientific expeditions. Carl Linnaeus and others in the scientific community were dismayed that Solander made these other expeditions before publishing his findings from the first.

• Scotland and Iceland (July 12, 1772 – November 20, 1772) – returned with Icelandic plant species, and lava specimens from Mount Kekla.
• Wales (1773) – collected native plant species

In 1773, Solander was appointed keeper of natural history at the British Museum. He lived with Banks in London amidst the collections in his care, and died on 13 May 1782, of a stroke. Although Linnaeus expressed disappointment in choices that Solander made, it was Solander that cared for Linnaeus’s son in England during an illness. Linnaeus and others expressed disappointment that Solander did not publish more, but, perhaps with his outgoing personality, he favored a more balanced life. I appreciate Bank’s tribute in a letter (from an annotated article by Roy Rauschenberg):

Solander’s mode of living in England you know as well as I. During the brightest part of the day he honored botany; but his proclivity for companionship never allowed him to return to the museum at night. Even if he had sought that action his countless friends would not have allowed it.

Banks goes on to praise Solander’s abilities for description:

He possessed an unusual charming ability to describe the curiosities in the British Museum with taste; so that men as well as ladies attended in those hours when they knew that Solander was responsible for showing the collection. Indeed his tour was so stimulating and pleasing, he was not only sought by learned men, but the King (George III) himself had the graciousness to honor him with his private discussion.

Learn More:

• Journal of artist Sydney Parkinson describing the trip – A Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas, in His Majesty's Ship, The Endeavour. Faithfully transcribed from the Papers of the late Sydney Parkinson, Draughtsman to Joseph Banks, Esq. on his late Expedition with Dr. Solander, round the World: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Journal_of_a_Voyage_to_the_South_Seas,_in_His_Majesty%27s_Ship,_the_Endeavour.
• Plants discovered by Banks, Solander and the scientific team – Illustrations of the Botany of Captain Cook's Voyage Round the World in H.M.S. Endeavour in 1768-71, edited by James Britten and published by the British Museum (London, 1905): http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/38665#page/1/mode/1up (see Plate 46 for Pleiogynium Solandri).
• Letter from Sir Joseph Banks, describing his friend and colleague annotated in an article by Roy Rauschenberg – A Letter of Sir Joseph Banks Describing the Life of Daniel Solander, Isis, Volume 55, Number 1, March, 1964, p. 66:  http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/227755 (read online version for free, but requires a logon account).

Daniel Solander in England

Daniel Solander arrived in London in June 1760s with letters of recommendation from Carl Linnaeus to John Ellis and Peter Collinson, two leading naturalists of the day. Ellis (1710-1776) was a linen merchant, who also specialized in the study of corals, and imported seeds from America. Collinson (1694-1768) was a plantsman and botanist who imported seeds from America via John Bertram. Solander established himself in London, and set out to learn English. He made two botanical journeys in the south of England:

• December 20, 1760 - early February 1761
• Midsummer 1761 - August 10, 1761

When he was not in the field, Solander enjoyed London society. He was gregarious and well liked. In 1761, Solander received news that Linnaeus's daughter married a young officer (the accounts vary - in some, Solander’s affections waned, in others, she married and Solander was so heartbroken that he became a bachelor). Also in 1761, Solander was offered the chair of botany at the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. On the advice of Collinson and other colleagues, Solander turned down the position, and informed Linnaeus he intended to stay in England. Linnaeus was disappointed that Solander would not succeed him at the University of Uppsala.

Solander box - photo by Marie Brannon

 

From 1761 to 1762 Solander classified and organized material from his journeys in London and southern England. He was assisted by John Ellis. In 1763, driven by the need for a more secure income, Solander accepted a position arranged by Collinson as an assistant librarian at the British Museum. Solander’s task was to catalog the natural history collection. In this position, Solander promoted the Linnaean system of classification, and helped pioneer museum curation (possibly more so than had he accepted the position at University of Uppsala). He developed a storage method for specimens, called the Solander box.

In 1764, Solander became a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1765, he worked on a descriptive catalog for the private museum of the Duchess of Portland. During this time, Solander met Joseph Banks, who traveled in the same circles, both professionally and socially. In 1768, Banks invited Solander to join the team of scientists, botanists, and artists he was assembling to join Captain James Cook’s expedition. Solander accepted the position, and took a leave of absence from the British Museum.

Learn More:

• Bibliographical sketch of Daniel Solander, by L.A. Gilbert: http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/solander-daniel-2677
• The Linnaean Correspondence – search the archives for letters to and from Daniel Solander: http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/index.php

Linnaeus Apostle: Daniel Solander

Daniel C. Solander (1733 - 1782) was a Linnaeus apostle who moved from his homeland in Sweden to England, and circumnavigated the world as a botanist with Captain James Cook. Solander was born February 19, 1733 in Piteå, Gammelstad, Norrbotten, Sweden to his father, Vicar Carl Solander, and mother, Magdalena Bostadia. As a boy he attended Piteå trivial school.

In July 1750, at the age of 17, Solander enrolled in Uppsala University, and boarded with his wealthy uncle. He studied language and humanities for two years, and then switched to natural history. Solander continued his studies, and worked with Carl Linnaeus on several projects. Some were botanical, such as making trips to Lapland to collect plants, and editing papers and manuscripts. Other projects had to do with organizing and classifying collections:

• Summer 1752 – Solander and Linnaeus helped organize Queen Lovisa Ulrika's Cabinet of Natural History at Drottningholm's Castle.

• Christmas 1752 – they organized Carl Gustav Tessin's Cabinet of Natural History in Stockholm.

• Summer 1753 – they classified and organized the collections at the Royal Castle at Ulriksdal.

Daniel C. Solander in later years – from a portrait by William Parry (public domain).

 

This was a great training ground for implementing the Linnaeus method of classification. These experiences may have also revealed natural interests and abilities in Solander. During his student years at University, Solander built a significant private library, herbarium, and cabinet of natural history. Linnaeus saw great potential in Solander. He promised Solander his daughter in marriage, and eventually his position at Uppsala University. In 1789, Linnaeus arranged for Solander to travel to England on scholarship to collect plant specimens and further his education.

Learn more:

• The IK Foundation – provides detailed information about natural and cultural history, including Carl Linnaeus and his apostles: http://www.ikfoundation.org/ifacts/danielsolander.php

• The Linnaean Society of London – provides a comprehensive online collection of information, correspondence, specimens, art, and documents: http://www.linnean-online.org/

• Linnaeus The Compleat Naturalist, by Wilfrid Blunt. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford (2004). Chapter 6, “The Apostles,” pages 193 – 194.

Sir Joseph Banks

Sir Joseph Banks (1743 – 1820) was a key player in the movement of plants in the 1700s. He was born in London, England to wealthy parents, and developed an interest in botany when he was 14. He collected local plant specimens, and learned all he could from the local women who collected herbs. He was sent to Oxford for formal schooling. Bank’s father died in 1761 when he was 18. At 21 Banks inherited great wealth, but determined to put it to good use in pursuit of his interests.

Joseph Banks (photograph of a painting by Joshua Reynolds)

While at Oxford, Banks met Linnaeus apostle Daniel Carl Solander, who had been sent to London in 1760 to catalog the garden of Peter Collinson, and then accepted an assistant’s post at the British Museum. Banks and Solander became friends and colleagues. Instead of taking “The Grand Tour of Europe” that was popular with young men of his class, Banks went on a fishery protection patrol in Newfoundland and Labrador, and collected live and dried plant specimens.

Solander introduced Banks to the scientific community in London. At the age of 23, Banks was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Banks promoted the idea of accompanying Captain James Cook on his first voyage of geographical and scientific exploration, and joined the expedition as chief naturalist at the age of 25. He funded additional artists, botanists, and scientists to join, including Solander. Between 1768 and 1771 the HMS Endeavor visited Africa, South America, New Zealand, Australia, and Tahiti. They made many scientific discoveries, and collected many plant specimens.

Banksia ericifolia native to Australia

Upon return to London in 1771, Banks became President of the Royal Society, and worked with King George III to expand Kew Gardens. Through his influence and means, Banks sent botanists and collectors all over the world; commissioned botanical artists; corresponded with scientists and botanists; and added to the collections at Kew Gardens and the British Museum. His plant and geographical knowledge enabled him to consult on many projects, including the ideas to transport breadfruit to the West Indies on the HMS Bounty, and establish a penal colony at Botany Bay in Australia. Banks knew many influential people of his day, including Ben Franklin in America, and Carl Linnaeus in Sweden. He is honored with a genus of plants named after him, Banksia.

Garden History – Plants on the Move

This year I’m taking a side trip from the usual course of garden history study. Earlier this year we focused on gardens of the Americas to learn more about how gardens were developing independently in the New World (see Garden History – The Americas). In parallel, we have been learning more about several of the Linnaeus apostles, who were sent out in the 1700s to spread the word about the new taxonomy promoted by Carl Linnaeus, and to collect plant specimens from all over the world (see The Linnaeus Apostles). Now we are focusing on gardening history through the lens of “plants on the move”, using a chapter from Penelope Hobhouse’s book, The Story of Gardening.

Ships transported seeds, dried plant specimens, and live seedlings all over the world.

According to Hobhouse, in Chapter 6, “Plants on the Move: Botanists, Collectors, and Artists”, in the wake of the Renaissance there was a shift in the relationship between people and plants. New professions and avocations were born, and everyone became enamored with plants. Explorers collected them, botanists studied them, artists depicted them, nurserymen propagated and sold them, entrepreneurs looked for ways to profit from them, physicians employed their healing properties, and enthusiasts grew them. With advances in printing, books and prints became more readily available so information spread quickly. Hobhouse cites three major plant sources in this era:

• Old World and Levant – collectors became enamored with bulbs and plants from the Mediterranean and the Levant (an old term for Turkey).  European plant collectors in the 1600s became enthralled with tulip bulbs, which become a commodity for a short time (“Tulip Mania”). The bubble burst, but the interest in bulbs and plants remained. 
• The Americas – the trees and shrubs discovered in North America were also in high demand. The American botanist John Bertram of Philadelphia collaborated with European distributors to exchange plants and seeds. Carl Linnaeus praised Bertram as a botanist, and our Linnaeus apostle, Pehr Kalm, worked with Bertram – see Pehr Kalm in North America). According to Hobhouse, a more naturalistic gardening movement was emerging in the early 1700s, and the plants from America were ideal for this style.
• Exotics – collectors were sent out by botanical gardens and private enthusiast to collect plants from all over the world, including Asia, Australia, Africa, South America, and the tropics. These exotics were embraced and grown in gardens and hot houses far from their native climates. 

Hobhouse writes from a Western perspective, especially the English point of view, but Britain was a key player in the botanical exchange. It is good to keep in mind that plant exchanges have taken place all through history. Consider the Silk Road linking East and West; cultural exchanges between countries, such as Japan and China, and France and Russia; and migrations of people groups. These were all opportunities for plant movement, but the post-Renaissance era of exploration, colonization, and quest for economic gain coupled with advances in technology, accelerated the movement of plants across the globe like never before in history.

Carl Peter Thunberg in Asia

Carl Peter Thunberg sailed by Dutch East Indies Company ship from Cape, South Africa on March 2, 1775 for Japan, at the age of 32. He was now fluent in Dutch, and a proficient plant collector, scientist, and physician. They stopped in Batavia, Jakarta, an important capital and center for the Company, and stayed a month, and then continued their journey on June 21, 1775. They arrived in Nagasaki, Japan on August 14, 1775.

Japan

The Japanese, fearing foreign influence, allowed minimal contact with outsiders, which was limited to the Chinese and Dutch. All Dutch foreigners were required to stay on the man-made island of Deshima, where the Dutch East India Company had a trading post, connected to Nagasaki by bridge. Thunberg acted as surgeon for the voyage, and his friendly manner and generous nature built trust with local Japanese doctors. Soon they were bringing plant specimens and seeds to him for his collection and to send to his patrons, along with information about their use. He was not able to see plants in situ, and did not realize that some were garden plants, many of which had been introduced from China in early cultural exchanges.

Japanese Black Pine (Pinus Thunbergii) - frequently used in bonsai (Creative Commons)

This trust opened doors for more contacts and opportunities for second-hand plant collecting and information gathering. Thunberg’s main interest was botany, but he recorded details about all aspects of Japanese culture. He genuinely admired the Japanese and enjoyed being an ambassador of Western culture and scientific knowledge. Over time he was invited to take day trips to Nagasaki to collect plants for making medicine, and to search for fodder for the Company’s animals. He was also invited to travel to Yeddo (modern day Tokyo) to honor the Shogun Teharu (who Thunberg refers to as the Emperor). Their party traveled in comfort and style, in sharp contrast with his travels by ox cart in South Africa.

Journey Home

After fifteen months in Japan, Thunberg started his journey home. He left Deshima on November 23, 1776, and returned to Java. There he spent six months collecting specimens, and was offered a job, which he turned down. On July 5, 1777, he left for Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka), where he collected many plants and wrote a paper on the cinnamon industry. On February 6, 1778, he set sale for Cape, South Africa. He stayed for 18 days and learned that Carl Linnaeus had died and his son succeeded him at University. Thunberg was offered the post of Demonstrator in Botany at University. Thunberg arrived in Amsterdam on October 1, 1778, and was welcomed by his friend Nicolaus Burman. He also received his salary and a large bonus for completing his obligations to the Dutch East India Company.

Thunberg used the money to spend the winter of 1778 in London. There he was provided for by Daniel Solander and J. Drvander (also students of Linnaeus). He met Sir Joseph Banks, a wealthy botanist who had also accompanied Captain James Cook on his first voyage, along with Solander, and was President of the Royal Society in London. Banks gave Thunberg access to his natural history collection for study. In the British Museum, Thunberg also studied the botanical collections, notes, and drawings of Engelbert Kaempfer, the only other European who had worked as a physician in Japan 100 years before Thunberg.

Sweden

Thunberg left for Sweden on January 30, 1779, and arrived on March 14, 1779, after eight and half years in the field. He was received by King Gustav, and earned financial support for future botanical projects. Thunberg worked at Uppsala University as a professor, and then succeeded the younger Carl Linnaeus upon his death as chair. He published many articles and books, including the important Flora Japonica and Flora Capensis, and was a lecturer on botany and Japanese culture. He corresponded with many botanists from his travels, including several from Japan.

In 1784, Thunberg married Brigitta Charlotta Ruda. They had no children together, but adopted several foster children. He established a new garden at the University, using land from King Gustav. He described nearly 1900 new plant specimens, and donated his large collection of 23,510 specimens (all labeled and documented) to Uppsala University. Thunberg died on August 8, 1828, several days after requesting a carriage ride around the garden and grounds at Uppsala University. He was loved and admired by his students, friends, and colleagues.

Learn more:

• Flora Capensis (download PDF, in Latin): http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/3649#/summary
• Flora Japonica (download PDF, in Latin): http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/3681#/summary
• Japan Extolled and Decried: Carl Peter Thunberg and the Shogun’s Realm, 1775-1796, annotated and introduced by Timon Screech (purchase or rent, in English): http://www.amazon.com/Japan-Extolled-Decried-Thunbergs-1775-1776-ebook/dp/B000OT8EJ6#reader_B000OT8EJ6

Carl Peter Thunberg in Africa

Carl Peter Thunberg sailed from Amsterdam for the Dutch colony of Cape in South Africa on December 30, 1771, at the age of 28. During the three and a half month journey to Cape, Thunberg worked as an assistant to the ship’s surgeon. Once in Cape, he worked for the Burmans and other Dutch sponsors on his natural history assignments. His goals were to become fluent in Dutch for his expedition to Japan, and to carry out botanical assignments to evaluate the commercial potential of African plants.



Blackeyed Susan Vine (Thunbergia alata) – photo by Jeff deLonge (Creative Commons)

Thunberg lived in Cape, and used it as a base for his research. A few days before his arrival, another Linnaeus apostle, Anders Sparrman, arrived to work as a tutor, and collect plants in his free time (he was 23, gregarious, and had already been to China to collect plants). The two collaborated somewhat, but Thunberg seemed to prefer working on his own. Seven months later, Sparrman joined Captain Cook as a botanist and surgeon on his second expedition. From 1772 to 1775, Thunberg conducted local botanical forays, and three major surveys along the coast and inland. These surveys were carried out during September through January, coinciding with the rainy season when plants were in bloom.

Expeditions:

• The Cape (1772, 1773, and 1775; and later in 1778 on his way home from Japan) – Thunberg explored the local environment looking for plant, animal, and fossil specimens; corresponded with fellow botanists; prepared reports of his findings; and sent manuscripts and materials to Linnaeus and his sponsors.
• First journey into Caffraria to Gamtoos River (September 1772 - January 1773) – Thunberg and his party travelled by wagon, drawn by oxen rather than horses, since oxen could better withstand the heat and lack of water. They stayed at Company farms along the way, and were impressed with the hospitality they received. His journal entries include observations about the countryside, plants, animals, and geology.
• Second journey into Caffraria to Sundays River (September 1773 - January 1774) – Thunberg headed northwest into the interior of South Africa, with fresh supplies and a new wagon. He travelled with Francis Masson, a Scottish gardener who had arrived with Sparrman the previous year, and had had been sent to collect African plants for Kew Gardens. Thunberg describes oxen and sheep farming, and aloe farming practices. He had harrowing experiences crossing swollen rivers, but faced the challenge calmly. Thunberg notes Hottentot rite of passages, and marriage customs.
• Third journey to Roggeveld (September 1774 - December 1774) – Thunberg travelled inland from the coast, stopping at Company farms. He obtained Lachenalia aloides while trying to find a short cut through some jagged rocks to the mountain he wished to climb. He collected African minerals, which he presented to the Royal Academy's Mineral Cabinet at Uppsala. They visited the Heerenlogement cave, and he remarked on the signatures on the cave wall (he did not leave his), and the ficus tree that had taken root in a fissure (the tree still lives today). A wagon accident caused the loss of part of his plant collection. Thunberg describes Hottentot customs, and notes several plants they used for food and beverage. He describes the dry terrain and people who inhabit the land – both colonists and native populations.

Thunberg collected close to 3000 plant specimens while in South Africa. A third of them were new discoveries. The genus Thunbergia is named after him. While in Cape, he also studied and documented species of Apionidae (Coleoptera). Interestingly, his specimens of this weevil, from the Zoological Museum of Uppsala University, have been reviewed recently to identify a possible new species of weevil (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3744141/).

 

Learn more:

• Travels at the Cape of Good Hope 1772-1775, by Carl Peter Thunberg (based on the English edition, London 1793-1775) – read entries from Thunberg’s journals
• The Linnaean Correspondence – search the archives for letters between Carl Peter Thunberg and Carl Linnaeus: http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/index.php

Linnaeus Apostle: Carl Peter Thunberg

Carl Peter Thunberg (1743 - 1828) was a Linnaeus apostle who traveled to South Africa, Japan, Java, and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He worked in the field for close to nine years, collecting plant and animal specimens, and published numerous books and papers about his expeditions and discoveries. Thunberg has been called the “father of South African botany” and the “Japanese Linnaeus” and is honored in both countries.

Thunberg was small, but strong and wiry. He was a competent doctor and botanist, and his actions show him as kind, considerate, and generous (in later years he helped over 200 doctoral students with their dissertations, without charging them a fee). Dr. Heinz Goerke (a modern Linnaeus scholar) observes “A striking feature of Thunberg’s works is their cold objectivity. His interest in nature was purely scientific. He never sought adventure, nor does it seem that the beauty of a foreign scene, the strangeness of new plants or the circumstances of their discovery particularly moved him. His principal concern was the practical value of what he found.” What a fascinating contrast for someone who spent so many years in the field, living a great adventure!

Carl Peter Thunberg portrait by von Krafft der Jungere (Public domain)

Thunberg was born in Jönköping in Smålander, Sweden on November 11, 1743 to Margaretha and Johan Thunberg, a bookkeeper at an iron foundry, and owner of a small shop. Carl’s father died when he was a boy, so his mother supported him and his brother by running the shop. She later married a merchant, which improved their circumstances. Although poor, Margaretha made sure her sons received the best education possible, with the plan for them to become accountants. Thunberg spent nine years at the Uppsala University studying Latin, Theology, Law, and Philosophy, and then earned a doctorate in medicine, studying under Linnaeus.

Europe

After University, Linnaeus arranged a small grant for Thunberg to travel and study abroad in Holland and France. He arrived in Amsterdam in October 1770 and spent a year with botanists Johannes Burman (1707 – 1779) and his son Nikolaas Laurens Burman (1733-1793). They were both impressed with Thunberg’s ability to name and classify plants in their collection without consulting any references. Thunberg studied medical practices in Paris during the year. On his return to Amsterdam, he learned that the Burmans had arranged for his employment with the Dutch East India Company for service in Japan. At the time Japan was closed to trade with all foreigners, except the Dutch. Thunberg would need to become Dutch – familiar with the Dutch colonies and fluent in the Dutch language!



Journey of Carl Peter Thunberg - Europe, South Africa, Japan, Java, and Ceylon

Learn more:

• The IK Foundation – provides detailed information about natural and cultural history, including Carl Linnaeus and his apostles: http://www.ikfoundation.org/ifacts/carlpeterthunberg.php
• The Linnaean Society of London – provides a comprehensive online collection of information, correspondence, specimens, art, and documents: http://www.linnean-online.org/
• Linnaeus The Compleat Naturalist, by Wilfrid Blunt. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford (2004). Chapter 6, “The Apostles,” pages 194 – 197.

Expeditions of Pehr Kalm

Pehr Kalm spent two and a half years in North America. Most of his time was spent in Philadelphia, and the nearby Swedish settlement of Raccoon, New Jersey (now Swedesboro). He explored the surrounding country side collecting plants and seeds to send to Linnaeus, and researching their uses and environment. He often took short trips in the area to expand his range, visiting new friends and colleagues. Later he took an extended trip up to French Canada. Most of his travel was by boat, following the many rivers and lakes in eastern North America.



Journey of Pehr Kalm - North America

North America

Timeline of Kalm’s travels in North America:

·         Philadelphia (1748-1749) – during the winter, Kalm spent time in Raccoon, where he also served as a lay minister for a Swedish church, whose rector, Johan Sandin, had died.

·         New York, United States (1748, 1749) – Kalm reports on trees and their uses, and on agriculture.

·         Pennsylvania, United States (1748, 1750)

·         Quebec, Canada (1749)

·         Montreal, Canada (1749)

·         Albany, United States (1749)

·         Niagara Falls, United States (1750) – Kalm writes a description of Niagara Falls.

North America to Sweden

Before leaving North America, Kalm married Anna, Johan Sandin’s widow. The Kalm’s left the continent via Philadelphia on February 13, 1751, and arrived in England in late April. After stays in London and Gothenburg, Sweden, they arrived in Stockholm, Sweden on June 3, 1751. Kalm took a Professorship in Economy at Åbo Academy, the Swedish university in Norway. There he established a botanical garden, published accounts of his travels, and taught until he died in 1771. He also became a minister. In Species Plantarum, Carl Linnaeus credits Kalm for 90 species (60 of them new, including his namesake, Kalmia).

Learn more:

• Summary of Pehr Kalm's life (though date of birth and place varies); also download the PDF version of his “Travels into North America” – volumes 1 and 2: http://www.americanjourneys.org/aj-117a/summary/index.asp
• Pehr Kalm at Trinity church in Raccoon Creek Swedesboro, New Jersey: http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WM47GR_Peter_Kalm_Trinity_Church_Swedesboro_New_Jersey_USA
• Pehr Kalm's travel articles, taken from his journal entries (see pages 398-400 for a list of plants in binomial form): http://international.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?intldl/ascfr:@field(DOCID+@lit(gcfrpi013_0384)) 

 

Pehr Kalm in North America

From Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, originally a Swedish settlement, Pehr Kalm began his survey of North American plants. He notes in his journal meeting Mr. Benjamin Franklin, who introduced Kalm to many of his friends, and provided significant introductions. One introduction was to Mr. John Bartram, an important plants man and botanist of the day (he grew plants native to the eastern seaboard, and distributed them to Britain and Europe, and to colonists, such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson). In his journal, Kalm reports that wherever he goes, he “finds plants he has never seen before,” and stops people to learn their names.

Kalm’s journal reveals his intellect and curiosity. It is filled with observations about plants, soil, and animals, as well as economic potential for plants (for example, he considered the Mulberry—Morus rubra—to start a silk trade in Sweden). He reports how the American Indians and colonists use plants for commerce, food, and medicine. He also reports on customs, churches, manners, history, and local lore. He frequently visits “Old Swedes” to gather information on plants, and about the old New Sweden. All the old Swedes report that fish, fowl, and game were more plentiful in their youth (even in the mid-1770s the impact of a growing population was being felt). He also notes that some colonists express they were becoming economically strong enough to no longer need ties with Britain.

Kalmia latifolia (photo by Arx Fortis)

Kalm collected seeds and specimens, and sent them, with his observations, to Dr. Linnaeus at the University of Uppsala, whenever he had an opportunity. In a journal entry on October 25, 1748, he reports packing up seeds to send on a ship bound for Europe. In appreciation, Linnaeus named an entire genus after him – Kalmia in the Ericaceae family, with about eight species of evergreen shrubs. In a journal entry on November 20, 1748, Kalm notes that Dr. Linnaeus had named several laurels after him, including Kalmia latifolia.

Linnaeus Apostle: Pehr Kalm

Carl Linnaeus chose Pehr (Peter) Kalm for the expedition to North America to survey and collect plant specimens. Linnaeus described him as “tall and towering, and with a manly and agreeable countenance.” Kalm was born in Finland in 1715, son of a Lutheran minister. His father died soon after his birth, and his mother returned with her son to her family home Sweden in 1716. He attended college at Åbo University in Finland, and then enrolled at Uppsala University in Sweden in 1740, where he studied under Carl Linnaeus. Between 1740 and 1744, Kalm studied, travelled, and collected plant specimens in Finland, Sweden, and Russia, financed by Sten Carl Bielke.

Kalm was a distinguished student, with an inquisitive mind, and well liked. In 1747, Kalm was selected to make an expedition to North America to look for useful agricultural plants for Sweden’s climate. He was sponsored by Åbo University, Uppsala University, and several partners from industry. He was well versed in the Linnaeus binomial naming system, and a perfect candidate to be a Linnaeus Apostle.

Pehr Kalm (oil on canvas, signed J.G. Geitel, c. 1764
(some uncertainty whether the portrait depicts Kalm)

England to North America

At 31 years of age, Kalm headed by ship first towards Norway, and then to London, England on the first step of his journey to North America. He spent six months in England, becoming familiar with its flora and fauna and arranging for his passage. On July 25, 1948, Kalm and his associate, Lars Yungstram (a botanist, gardener, and artist), set sail on the HMS Mary Galley, commanded by Captain Lawson. They had mild weather and a surprisingly easy journey, and arrived in Maryland after only six weeks (the trip could take as a long as 14 weeks). They then sailed to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania where Kalm and his associate disembarked. On the journey, and for the whole expedition, Kalm kept a journal recording daily events, observations about people, customs, and flora and fauna.

Learn more:

• The IK Foundation – provides detailed information about natural and cultural history, including Carl Linnaeus and his apostles: http://www.ikfoundation.org/ifacts/pehrkalm.php
• The Linnaean Society of London – provides a comprehensive online collection of information, correspondence, specimens, art, and documents: http://www.linnean-online.org/.
• Linnaeus The Compleat Naturalist by Wilfrid Blunt. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford (2004). Chapter 6, “The Apostles,” pages 185 – 186.

Expeditions of Pehr Löfling

Pehr Löfling prepared for his expedition to Spain while in Stockholm, Sweden. According to Wilfred Blunt, in Linnaeus The Compleat Naturalist, members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences showered Löfling with gifts of scientific instruments; and the Spanish Ambassador arranged payment for his voyage, and pocket money for enjoying it. Löfling sailed to Lisbon, Portugal, and then journeyed overland to Madrid, Spain, where he spent the next two years.

Journey of Pehr Löfling - Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, and South America

Spain, Europe

While in Spain, Löfling learned Spanish, and worked with local botanists, including:

• Don Joseph Ortega – chief apothecary to the army, and secretary of the physical academy at Madrid
• Don Minuart – chief apothecary to the hospitals
• Don Quer – first surgeon to the king (and owner of a comprehensive botanical garden)
• Don Christoval Velez – apothecary and examiner of the College of Physicians (and owner of a large collection of botanical books)

Löfling wisely named four newly-discovered Spanish plants after each of them. He also gathered specimens for about 1300 species, and recorded his findings. He sent regular reports and correspondence to Carl Linnaeus, including many specimens for the herbarium in Uppsala. Löfling kept a journal of his journey called Iter Hispanicum (Spanish Journey).

Cumana, South America (now Venezuela)

After two years in Spain, the Spanish Ministry offered Löfling the position of head naturalist and botanist on an expedition to South America, called the Spanish Great Border Drawing Expedition to South America. His staff included two young physicians, and two draftsmen. They sailed from Cádiz, Spain on January 28, 1754, and arrived in Cumana in April 1754.

According to Jean Bernard Bossu, in Travels Through Louisiana, Löfling “found a new world, every plant he beheld was new, and their great number gave him employment from morning to night.” Because of the harsh climate, they travelled by sea or river, which was considered safer than travelling overland. Löfling collected specimens; gave lectures on botany to his pupils; and examined, documented, and drew plants. He collected 600 species, including about 250 species new to Linnaeus.

In 1755, after a two or three month excursion to the Mission of Curoni, Löfling and most of his company fell sick with fever upon their return to Cumana. He was plagued by repeated fever attacks and deteriorating health over the next months, and died at the Mission of Merercuri in February 22, 1756. He was 27. His collection of South American plant specimens was lost, but Linnaeus edited Löfling’s account of his journey in Iter Hispanicum in 1758 as a tribute. Löfling's life was cut short, but his presence on the excursion helped establish the tradition of including a naturalist on expeditions.

Learn more:

Travels Through Louisiana, Book 2, by Jean Bernard Bossu, Captain in the French Marines - an abstract of “useful articles” by Pehr Löfling is included:

http://international.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbfr&fileName=0070/rbfr0070.db&recNum=83&itemLink=r?intldl/ascfr:@field(DOCID+@lit(rbfr0070_0001))%2300702&linkText=1

Linneaus Apostle: Pehr Löfling

Young Pehr Löfling set out from Sweden to Spain in 1751, to learn Spanish, and collect plant specimens. His friends and colleagues described him as a tall, slender, manly Swede, who made friends and won hearts wherever he went. Carl Linnaeus called him a beloved pupil and excellent botanist, who kept company with the brightest of his fellow students; and nicknamed him The Vulture, presumably because his sharp eyes spotted excellent plant specimens in the field. Löfling’s good friend, J. O. Hagström, spoke highly of his character – as being graced with virtue, common sense, and uprightness; and as being God-fearing, serious, affectionate, and loyal, with a quick understanding of Nature’s secrets.

Löfling was born in January 20, 1729 in Tolvfors, Valbo, Gästrikland, Sweden. His father was a bookkeeper at the local mill work. Löfling was educated by private tutor, and then entered Uppsala University in 1743 at the age of 14. He worked his way through school, as a tutor for Carl Linnaeus’s son; as a worker at the Uppsala Botanical Garden; and as an assistant for Linnaeus’s own writings. Initially, Löfling studied theology, but later switched to medicine and natural history. In 1751, Löfling graduated as a doctor of medicine (at the time, botany was an important area of study for physicians). He became a Fellow of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in the same year.

Loeflingia hispanica, a small annual herb, named after Pehr Löfling.

In 1750, the Spanish Ambassador in Stockholm asked Linnaeus to recommend a botanist to investigate the flora of Spain. At the time, plants were being discovered all over the world, and studied for economic potential. The King of Spain wanted the native plants of Spain to be so investigated. Linnaeus recommended his prize student, Pehr Löfling. In 1951, at the age of 22, Löfling headed by ship to Portugal, and then Spain to explore Spanish flora, and launch his career.

Learn more:

• The IK Foundation – provides detailed information about natural and cultural history, including Carl Linnaeus and his apostles: http://www.ikfoundation.org/ifacts/pehrlofling.php
• The Linnean Society of London – provides a comprehensive online collection of information, correspondence, specimens, art, and documents: http://www.linnean-online.org/
• Linnaeus The Compleat Naturalist, by Wilfrid Blunt. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford (2004). Chapter 6, “The Apostles,” pages 185, and 190 – 192.

The Linneaus Apostles

The Linnaeus Apostles have intrigued me since reading about them in Linnaeus: the Compleat Naturalist, by Wilfred Blunt. Carl Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) was a Swedish botanist and Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, and is considered the father of the modern taxonomy. He advocated his classification and binomial naming system for plants, animals, and minerals, and used a sexual system for classifying plants.



Botanical exploration range for four of the apostles, from http://www.ikfoundation.org/ilinnaeus/imaps.php. On the website, you can select one or more apostle to learn more (each one is assigned a number key).

Linnaeus sent out some of his most promising students on botanical expeditions all over the world, with the task to collect, classify, and name new plants, animals, and minerals using the Linnaeus system. Their activities influenced many expeditions of the day, and spread the word about the new taxonomy. As part of my “plants on the move” theme this year, I have selected four of the Apostles to research:

• Pehr Löfling (1729 – 1756): explored Spain and South America (1751 – 1756). See map key 4.
• Pehr Kalm (1715 – 1779): explored North America and Canada (1747 – 1751). See map key 3.
• Carl Peter Thunberg (1743 – 1828): explored South Africa and Japan (1770 – 1779). See map key 12.
• Daniel Solander (1733 – 1782): explored Australia and Iceland (1768 – 1772). See map key 17.

Most of the apostles sent their collections to Linnaeus, creating a comprehensive botanical collection for the Uppsala University. Most of them had plants or species named after them. I look forward to learning more about these individuals, their discoveries, and this era of exploration. 

How to Identify Plants

After a visit to the poison garden, it is obvious that being able to identify plants is an asset. Today’s resource is a little book called How to Identify Plants, by H.D. Harrington. The book is published by Swallow Press books (Ohio University Press), with copyrights in 1957 and 1985; and illustrated by L.W. Durrell. Harold David Harrington (1903 - 1981) was a professor of botany and zoology at Colorado State University from 1944 through 1968, and the curator of the CSU Herbarium for 25 years. Harrington was an expert on edible and poisonous plants, grasses, and aquatic plants in Colorado and the West, and authored several books. His wife, Edith, was also a botanist, and assisted him with his specimen collecting forays and manuscripts. Two species are named in his honor – Penstemon harringtonii and Oenothera harringtonii.

The initial chapters describe why it is important to identify plants, and how plants are classified and named. The bulk of the book defines terms relative to plant parts, including the flower, inflorescence, underground parts, stems, leaves, fruits and seeds, and surfaces. Many illustrations enhance the definitions. Additional chapters provide helpful reference material, such as how to use keys to identify plants, how to collect and press plants, and what regional manuals and floras are available. The glossary provides access to the terms in alphabetical order.

This is a great book for beginners just learning the language of plants, and for experienced plant lovers who need a quick reminder of how to describe a leaf shape, or flower construction. The book is small enough to toss in a day pack, or keep on your desk.

Hortus Third

Hortus Third is a reference of economically important plants in North America, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. The book was authored by Liberty Hyde Bailey (1858 – 1954) and his daughter Ethel Zoe Bailey (1889 – 1983), and published by MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc. (New York, 1976). Liberty Hyde Bailey joined Cornell University in 1888 and expanded its botanical, nature, and agricultural programs; he became Dean in 1903 and established new departments, an experiment station, an arboretum, and new courses of study. He was a plants man and avid collector of plant specimens and seed catalogs. He was a botanist, taxonomist, horticulturist, and writer.

The introduction describes the book and its scope, arrangement of content, classification system (a few things have changed since 1976), botanical names, and the abbreviations used to describe plants and geographical origin. The appendix provides a list of authors cited, a glossary of botanical terms (including leaf-shape diagrams), and an index by common name. The endplates show minimal temperature ranges for USDA plant hardiness zones in the continental United States.

The bulk of the book is devoted to describing the plants. Entries are ordered alphabetically, by genus and species, and describe the plant or tree in detail. Using abbreviations, the descriptions are concise and dense with information about names, origin, leaves, flowers, fruit, stems, bark, and so forth. Many descriptions are accompanied by illustrations and exploded diagrams, especially useful for complex flower parts. Here is a sample description, for Quercus agrifolia:

Agrifolia Née [Q. oxyadenia Torr.]. CALIFORNIA LIVE O., CALIFORNIA FIELD O. Evergreen, to 100 ft.; lvs. elliptic, to 3 in. long, spiny-toothed, convex above, somewhat stellate-pubescent, especially in axils of veins beneath; fr. maturing the first season, cup enclosing ¼-⅓ of nut. Me. to Fla. and Tex. Zone 4. Furnishes one of the most important commercial woods.

I refer to this book all the time to learn about trees and plants, and the language to describe them. My copy is second hand – from Chuck Konigsberg, a plants man and educator whom I interviewed a few years ago for a Sunset post (he, in turn, had obtained it second hand from one of his students). The book is almost 40 years old, but is still very accurate (much of the reclassification over the years has occurred in the realm of bacteria and fungi). Interestingly, the book refers to changes in classification that were occurring at the time it was published, indicating that classification is in continual flux as we learn more about the world around us! I especially like that Hortus Third was authored by a father-daughter team.

Carl Linnaeus

Carl Linnaeus was born in 1707 at Råshult, Sweden to Nils Linnaeus, the village curate and amateur botanist, and Christina, daughter of a rector. A teacher recognized Carl’s youthful interest in botany and recommended that he study medicine at the University (botany was an important aspect of medicine at the time). Linnaeus transferred to Uppsala University in 1727. While at University, Linnaeus wrote a paper about the sexuality of plants. In 1730, he began to question the current plant classification system, which was to compile a string of Latin adjectives that described the plant, animal, or mineral. As more discoveries were made worldwide, this method was quickly becoming unwieldy.

In 1732, at the age of 25, Linnaeus was commissioned by the Royal Society of Science to travel throughout Lapland to investigate its flora, fauna, and minerals. He spent five months in the field collecting and observing. He reported his finds in Florula Lapponica, his first publication to use his ‘sexual system’ of classification for plants. From 1733 – 1740 he continued studying botany, lived abroad, obtained his medical degree, set up a medical practice, and married Sara Lisa.

Photo of Linnaeus's bedroom taken at the Hammarby Museum
by Swedish photographer Emma Schenson in 1864. The walls
are papered with copies of botantical drawings by Charles Plumier
(French botanist) and Georg Ehret (botanical artist).
This work is in the public domain in the United States, and those countries
with a copyright term of life of the author plus 90 years or fewer.

In 1741, he accepted a medical professorship at Uppsala University. At University he lectured, wrote, promoted his method of classification, and mentored a new generation of botanist. He sent out his “apostles” to collect and classify specimens from all over the world, and promote his classification system. He continued to publish, teach, summer in Hammarby, and correspond with botanists all over the world until his death in 1778.

Linnaeus: The Compleat Naturalist

I read Linnaeus: The Compleat Naturalist by Wilfred Blunt to learn more about Carl Linnaeus, the “father of taxonomy.” The book is published by Princeton University Press (New Jersey, 2001). It is entertaining and informative; and provides a comprehensive collection of maps, pictures and photos, and writings from those who knew Linnaeus. The reference material, including the bibliography and chronology of Linnaeus, are especially useful.

Linnaeus lived from 1707 to 1778, a time of worldwide exploration and discovery. The new discoveries needed to be classified, and Linnaeus’s classification system and binomial naming system met that need. David Quammen, in his article “Linnaeus A Passion for Order”, observes “you need to recognize that Carl Linnaeus wasn’t simply a great botanist and prolific deviser and memorizer of names. He was something more modern: an information architect.” This book shows how Linnaeus developed his ideas.

Besides learning about Linnaeus's many contributions, I also enjoyed learning about Linnaeus the person. His plant classification was based on a “sexual system” (the number of stamens), something he seemed to take delight in (despite, or because of, the shock it caused). He embraced the creationist view of his time, and felt called to look for and classify God’s natural system in the botanical world. In that pursuit, he was a shameless and effective promoter of his ideas, with just the amount of charm and personality to make it endearing. He was a marvelous teacher and lecturer – skilled at speaking, a mind for detail, and an interest in his students. In the summer, he led botanical field trips from his country house in Hammarby, which were part intellectual pursuit, and part theater and fun.