Linneaus Apostles: Search for Dyes Summary

As part of our Plants to Dye For theme this year, we've taken another look at the botanical expeditions of four Linnaeus Apostles: Pehr Lofling, Pehr Kalm, Carl Peter Thunberg, and Daniel Solander.  This time we looked at their exploration and specimen collection efforts through the lens of textiles and plant dyes, with writer Viveka Hansen, author of Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade, as our guide.

Following is a summary of some of these plants, organized by dye color.

Color	Plant	Description
Browns	Alder (Betula alnus) White oak (Quercus alba) Black walnut (Juglans nigra)	Bark Bark (color fast) Hulls and bark (color fast)
Yellows	Canadian goldenrod (Solidago canadensis) Saffron (Crocus sativus) Dyer's weld (Reseda luteola) Dyer's broom (Genista tinctoria) Saw-wort (Serratula tinctoria) Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) Morinda (Morinda umbellata) Alexandrian Laurel (Calophyllum inophyllum)	Flowers (best for wool, with alum) Flower stamens Flowers Plant Leaves Flowers Roots Nuts
Orange	Sassafras tree	Bark
Reds	American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana) Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) Alder Spruce pine Indian Mulberry (Morinda citrfaolia) Indian Madder (Rubia cordata, now Rubia cordifolia) Ficus (Ficus tinctoria) + Geiger Tree (Cordia sebestena)	Ripe berries (not color fast) Fresh roots Bark Root Root Fruit + Flower
Red-Purple	Brazilwood (Caesalpinia gilliesli)	Heartwood
Blue	Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria) "Polygonum Chinese barbatum & avuncular" Woad (Isatis tinctoria)	Plant Leaves Leaves
Black	Mangosteen (Garcinia magnostana)	Hulls

Search for Dyes: Daniel Solander

This year we are taking another look at our Linnaeus Apostles, but using a filter for textiles and plant dyes. The "apostles" were sent out from the University of Sweden in the 1700s by their professor, Carl Linnaeus, to gather plant specimens, name and classify them using the binomial naming system, and identify economically useful plants. Our guide for this second look is Viveka Hansen, and her work Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade.

Daniel Solander (1733-1782) made several expeditions to Lapland, England, and Scotland, but usually to classify museum and curiosity collections. His major botanical expedition was to join Captain James Cook, John Banks, and a team of botanists, scientists, and artists on the H.M.S. Endeavor to circumnavigate the globe. The journey lasted three years from August 1768 - July 1771. They visited Madeira, Brazil, Argentina, French Polynesia, New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Java, South Africa and St. Helena.

Solander described Brazilwood, used to produce a range of red dyes
Illustration by Paul Hermann Wilhelm Taubert (1862-1897, public domain)

Solander's exposure to local practises and traditions for producing fabric may have been somewhat limited, since they travelled by ship, but they frequently stopped for long periods to restock provisions and make ship repairs, so had some opportunity. Some of the places they visited were so temperate that minimal clothing was required, so materials and processes for creating them were unique.

Solander did not keep a travel journal, but wrote many letters and documented the botanical material they collected (30,300 plants from 3,607 species and 110 plant families). Hansen relies on these letters and documents, and on the journals of Joseph Banks, James Cook, and Sydney Parkinson to compile her textile and dyeing information for Solander.

Solander and Banks were intrigued to see floating molluscs periodically while crossing the Atlantic between Africa and South America. Banks thought they might produce a reddish-purple color, similar to the Murex snail shell of the Mediterranean, but sightings were rare and they never had sufficient numbers with which to experiment.

In the Portuguese colony of Rio de Janeiro, their movement was restricted which curtailed their investigation. In Brazil, they did not find a dye trade, but learned of several materials used to produce dyes. Brazilwood (Caesalpinia echinata, renamed Paubrasilia echinata in 2016) and the duramen of the Fernambuca tree (Lignum fernambuca) produced reddish purple dyes. Indigo was also produced to export to Portugal (frequently taking the land that local farmers would have used to produce their food).

In Tahiti and nearby islands, they found tapa bark cloth was created for clothing and other uses. Cloth of a similar kind had also been documented in Africa, Asia, and America. Solander thought they used the same material to create tapa, as the Chinese used to make paper (the paper mulberry). Both Cook and Parkinson recorded detailed notes about tapa's production, adornment, and practical and ceremonial uses. Only parts of the bark cloth were dyed, not the whole sheet. Red and yellow were the predominant colors. Red was produced from a mixture of liquids from Ficus tinctoria and Cordia sebestena. The yellow was produce from the bark from the Morinda umbellata plant or from the fruit of Calophyllum inophyllum.  The dyes were pressed into the tapa cloth in various patterns, and seemed to remain colorfast, at least as long as they were present to observe.

In New Zealand they encountered a type of fabric produced from flax by the Maori. They described the cloth as silky and white, with colored boarders (but no details beyond that). The Maori had little use for European fabric, but were very interested to trade provisions for tapa cloth from other regions. In Australia they found the native inhabitants to be devoid of clothing, but adorned with patterns of paint,

During a brief stay in New Guinea, they observed that both men and women wore blue and white patterned cotton cloth. They did not observe the actual production, but did see the tools used for cleaning away the cotton seeds, spinning the thread, and weaving lengths of cloth. The weaving impressed them, since the warp yarn was resist-dyed (ikat). The end product was described as a clouding or waving pattern.

On their way home from the expedition they spent several months in Batavia (as did Carl Peter Thunberg). They too made observations about indigo cultivation, and the importance of the indigo trade for the Dutch East India Company.

Learn More

Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade by Viveka Hansen, fifth volume in the Mundus Linnae Series, issued by the IK Foundation & Company (London 2017). See pages 203-226.

Search for Dyes: Carl Peter Thunberg

This year we are taking a second look at our Linnaeus Apostles, but this time using a filter for textiles and plant dyes. The "apostles" were sent out from the University of Sweden in the 1700s by their professor, Carl Linnaeus, to gather plant specimens, name and classify them using the binomial naming system, and identify plants that could be economically useful to Sweden. Our guide in this venture is Viveka Hansen, and her work Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade.

Carl Peter Thunberg (1743-1828) spent nine years in the field in Europe, South Africa, Japan, Batavia (also called Java), and Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka). During this time he collected, named, and observed the thousands of plants he encountered. He was not as interested in textiles and related subjects as some of his fellow apostles, but his notes do include information and observations. As a student he had an opportunity to travel to France, where he visited the tapestry factory Les Gobelins, and commented on the fashions of the day.

Thunberg described Garcinia mangostana used to produce a black dye.
Illustration from Selected Flowers, Fruit, and Foliage from the Island of Java, by Berthe Hoola van Nooten (1817-1892).
Public domain in the United States.

While in South Africa (1772-1775), he wrote about the local Hottentots, who used sheepskin and calfskin and other animal hides for their garments, typically decorated with shells instead of any plant or mineral dyes.

Thunberg left for Japan in 1775, and spent six months in Batavia en route to and from Japan. There he gathered information about the Javanese people, their clothing, and fabrics. Batavia was a thriving trade center for the Dutch East India Company, so he had the opportunity to learn about cotton, silk, linen, weaving, and resist dyeing, as well as some of the plants used for dyeing.

He cites Indigofera tinctoria as the most important commodity for the trading company; it was used to produce the highest quality blue dye. Garcinia mangostana was gathered in January when the rind turned deep purple, and used for dyeing black. Morinda citrifolia root produced red (similar to the common madder Rubia tinctoria, except dyeing with Morinda citrifolia could be done in lukewarm water). Many of the dye recipes and dye processes were passed from Indonesian mothers to their daughters and held in secret, so Thunberg could not provide many details.

Thunberg spent 15 months in Japan from 1775-1776. Although his movements were restricted and he was sequestered on the man-made island of Deshima, he earned trust and was able to interact freely with local Japanese doctors, take day trips to Nagasaki to collect plants for medicinal purposes, and travel to Yeddo (now Tokyo) to honor the Shogun Teharu. His notes report on dyeing yarn and fabrics in Japan, and plants used for dyeing. He also reports on shibori, the resist dyeing process that is unique to Japan.

People in the provinces used Rubia chordata for red dye (also related to the common madder root). For blue, people used "Polygonum Chinese, barbatum, and avuncular" which are similar to indigo. The leaves were dried, pounded, made into small cakes, and sold in shops. The cakes were mixed with ashes and boiled in water (the stronger the mix, the darker the blue), and used to dye linen, silk, and cotton. In his work, Flora Japonica, Thunberg later describes Serratula tinctoria, or saw-wort for yellow; Carthamus tinctoria or safflower for yellow silk; and Crocus sativus also for yellow.

In 1777, Thunberg started his journey home, and spent six months in Ceylon en route. He records little about textiles or dyeing, but reports how coconut fiber was used to produce a fabric called coir, and notes about the fine quality of cotton from India.

Learn More

Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade by Viveka Hansen, fifth volume in the Mundus Linnae Series, issued by the IK Foundation & Company (London 2017). See pages 253-282.

Search for Dyes: Pehr Kalm

This year we are revisiting our Linnaeus Apostles, who were sent out into the world from the University of Sweden, Uppsala in the 1700s to gather plant specimens, name and classify them using the binomial naming system, and identify plants that could help Sweden attain economic independence. This time we are looking at their efforts through the lens of textiles and plant dyes, with writer Viveka Hansen, author of Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade, as our guide.

Pehr Kalm (1716-1779) visited Finland and Russia as a student, and later traveled to England for six months, and then to the East Coast of America and Canada. His notes and diaries make many observations about textiles and textile dyeing, and show his special interest in how fibers were extracted from flax, hemp, cotton, and wool.

Kalm described sassafras (Sassafras officinale) as producing an orange dye.
Illustration from Koehler's Medicinal Plants
(published before 1923 and public domain in the United States)

During his University years (1740-1747), Kalm worked for his sponsor, Baron Sten Carl Bielke (a friend of Linnaeus), to manage Bielke's trial cultivation at Lofstad, and to make scientific trips during the summer. Botany was the main focus of the trips, but Kalm also sought to learn how locals used the plants. He and other Apostles wrote pamphlets and gave lectures, promoting the use of domestic plants for dying.

During their six months in England, while arranging for passage to America, Kalm and his assistant, Lars Jungstrom, researched how people lived, used natural resources, and harvested and processed wool from sheep.

In North America Kalm and Jungstrom, travelled throughout the colonies of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Delaware, and the southern part of Canada. Their notes include observations about local plants used for dyeing, for example:

Color	Plant	Description
Browns	Alder (Betula alnus) White oak (Quercus alba) Black walnut (Juglans nigra)	Bark Bark (color fast) Hulls and bark (color fast)
Yellows	Canadian goldenrod (Solidago canadensis)	Flowers (works best for wool, with alum)
Reds	American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana) Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis)	Ripe berries (beautiful color, but fades) Fresh roots (was used by Native Americans as well)

Kalm visited the botanist John Bartram (1699-1777) on multiple occasions in the Philadelphia area between 1748-1751. He met Mrs. Bartram who was knowledgeable about dyeing. She told Kalm about dyeing with sassafras tree bark, which gives wool a beautiful color fast orange color. Her technique was to use urine as the mordant instead of alum, and to boil the dye in a cauldron of ore instead of iron. He also learned from her that a color fast red could be achieved with the bark from alder and spruce pine, and that brown wool was best dyed with bark from the black walnut tree.

Kalm also interviewed older settlers who had learned about dyeing from the Native Americans in their youth. By the time Kalm and Jungstrom were in the area, the natives had been driven out, so the information he gathered was second hand. But they learned that the natives had used dyes for grass mats, leather, and porcupine quills. Kalm also reported on saw-wort (Serratula tinctoria), and other yellow, red, orange, and black sources, and on indigo.

In 1763, Kalm and colleague Esaisis Holdkeg (1738-1798) published a dissertation on "North American Dye Plants", which summarized findings from America and Canada.

Learn More

Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade by Viveka Hansen, fifth volume in the Mundus Linnae Series, issued by the IK Foundation & Company (London 2017). See pages 31-44.

Search for Dyes: Pehr Löfling

This year we are revisiting our Linnaeus Apostles, who were sent out into the world from the University of Sweden, Uppsala in the 1700s to gather plant specimens, name and classify them using the binomial naming system, and identify plants that could help Sweden be self sufficient. We'll take a look at their efforts, through the lens of textiles and plant dyes, with writer Viveka Hansen, author of Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade, as our guide.

Pehr Loffling (1729-1756) spent two years in Portugal and Spain, and then six months in South America, including Venezuela. He died at the age of 27 in South America, due to disease caught during his travels. He was a botanist primarily, and not very interested in textiles, but he did record a few things about plant dyes during his travels.

Loffling described saffron (Crocus sativus) as producing a yellow dye
Illustration from Koehler's Medicinal Plants
(published before 1923 and public domain in the United States)

Loffling headed for Portugal in 1751 and spent two years searching the countryside of Portugal and Spain for plants. His letters to his sponsor, Eric Gustaf Lidbeck at Lund, and professor, Carl Linnaeus, describe the familiar dye plants, dyer's weld (Reseda luteola),  and buckthorn (Rhamnus tinctoria). He also mentions alder bark which produces brown dye, and saffron (Crocus sativus) which produces an expensive yellow dye.

His letters also indicate that he knew about the harvest of cochineal lice that lived on cactus and was used to create a red dye. The cochineal insects, Dactylopius coccus, were harvested on plantations in South America, dried in the sun, and then exported to Spain.

Loffling headed for South America in 1754.  His letters to his sponsor mention Indigo (Indigoferra) which produces blue dye, but he does not indicate whether the source was wild or cultivated. He also wrote about other exports from South America, including Dyer's broom (Genista tinctoria) used to produce a yellow dye, and Brazilwood (Caesalpinia gilliesii) used to produce shades of red, as well as yellow-wood, and sandalwood (Santalum album). Importing South American dye materials from Spain was very expensive, and Loffling recommended that Spanish-owned plantations in South America export to Spain.

Loffling was ill for most of his time in South America, but he reported that he had collected 550-600 distinct species during his travels. He succumbed to disease after six months in South America, and his plant collection was destroyed in a natural disaster. Sill his letters provide information and insight about the dye plants available in Portugal, Spain, and South America.

Learn More

Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade by Viveka Hansen, fifth volume in the Mundus Linnae Series, issued by the IK Foundation & Company (London 2017). See pages 61-64.

Linnaeus Apostles: Search for Dyes

Carl Linnaeus sent his "apostles" from the University of Sweden, Uppsala out into the world  to gather plant specimens, and to name and classify them using the binomial naming system. Part of the mission was to identify plants that could help Sweden become self-sufficient and to prosper. Textiles and plant dyes were included in that charter.

Several years ago we learned about four of the apostles and their discoveries (see: Linnaeus Apostles). Here is a refresher about these four apostles.

Apostle	Description
Pehr Löfling (1729 – 1756)	Explored Spain and South America (1751 – 1756). Search for dyes
Pehr Kalm (1715 – 1779)	Explored North America and Canada (1747 – 1751). Search for dyes
Carl Peter Thunberg (1743 – 1828)	Explored South Africa and Japan (1770 – 1779). Search for dyes
Daniel Solander (1733 – 1782)	Explored Australia and Iceland (1768 – 1772). Search for dyes

Over the next several months we'll take another look at these apostles, specifically to see what each of them learned about textiles and plant dyes. Viveka Hansen, author of Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade, will be our guide.

Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade

Textilia Linnaeana: Global 18th Century Textile Traditions & Trade is a scholarly look at data collected by the Linnaeus Apostles, through the lens of textiles and dyes. Viveka Hansen is the author and an independent textile historian. She works as a researcher and editorial secretary at the IK Foundation (United Kingdom). Textilia Linnaeana was published as the fifth volume in the Mundus Linnae Series, and issued by the IK Foundation & Company (London 2017).

The introduction sets the stage with Carl Linnaeus's exploration of Sweden and environments, and his pursuit to gather plant specimens and classify them using the binomial naming system. He was also interested in finding practical and economical uses for plants, which would enable Sweden to be self sufficient and to prosper. Over the course of fifty years, he sent his "apostles" out from the University at Uppsala to all over the world to gather plant specimens, name and classify them, and consider their economic use.

The bulk of the book is devoted to the contribution of each apostle, using their journals and source material, and extracting their notes and observations about textiles and dyes. The back matter includes information about dye stuff and Hansen's experience dyeing wool fiber with plant dyes; extensive notes and a list of illustrations; and a comprehensive bibliography.

I focused on the four Linnaeus Apostles we studied several years ago (Pehr Löfling, Pehr Kalm, Carl Peter Thunberg, and Daniel Solander). I was fascinated to learn how the locals they interviewed used native plants to dye fiber (or paid for higher-quality dyes from exotic sources), extracted dyes, and dyed their fibers. I also enjoyed reading details from the explorer's journals about practical matters like what it cost to have clothes laundered, the impossibility of drying linen on ship after washing clothes in salt water (often resulting in mold), and the difficulty of obtaining suitable clothing in some places. I recommend this book for anyone interested in plants, plant dyes, and plant exploration in the 1700s. It is a scholarly work, but very accessible to read.

Plants on the Move: Wrap Up

Learn about ancient American gardening practices, the Linnaeus apostles who traveled the world collecting botanical specimens, and the movement of plants around the globe.

Ships transported seeds, dried plants, and live seedlings all over the world

Getting Started

Plants have always been on the move, whether hitching a ride on fur, feathers, water or air; or being transported by humans for trade, commerce, or sustenance.

Garden History – Plants on the Move

Linnaeus Apostles

The Linnaeus Apostles traveled the world in the 1700s, collecting botanical specimens, and categorizing and naming them using the binomial system.

The Linnaeus Apostles
Linnaeus Apostle: Pehr Lofling
Linnaeus Apostle: Pehr Kalm
Linnaeus Apostle: Carl Peter Thunberg
Linnaeus Apostle: Daniel Solander
Linnaeus Apostles: Search for Dyes (Mar 2019)

Interesting History

Botanical discoveries in the Americas had a world-wide influence, and we can still learn from them.

Garden History – The Americas
Early Botanical Gardens in the Americas
Terrace Farming in the Americas
Soil Building in the Americas
Sir Joseph Banks
Transporting Plants

Herbs and Spices

Herbs and spices originate from all over the world, and have influenced and benefitted the cooking of many cultures.

2017: Curry  Saffron  Turmeric
2016: Parsley  Rosemary  Sage
2015: Anise  Hops  Wormwood
2014: Bay Leaves  Red Peppers  Mustard
2013: Cardamom  Poppy Seeds  Sugar Cane
2012: Allspice  Cloves  Ginger
2011: Cacao  Cinnamon  Nutmeg Vanilla

Books and Movies

Learn more about the plants discovered all over the world, and watch films that depict an era of exploration and discovery.

The Story of Gardening
1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus
The Lore of Spices
Captain James Cook (Jan 2015)
Captain Cook: Obsession and Discovery (Jan 2015)
Mutiny on the Bounty (Jan 2015)

Expeditions of Daniel Solander

Daniel Solander made two major expeditions, as a botanist and collector, with his friend and colleague, Sir Joseph Banks. This made Solander the greatest traveler of all of Linnaeus’s apostles.

Journies of Daniel Solander – South Seas, Iceland, and Brittain

Around the World (August 25, 1768 – July 12, 1771)

In 1768 Daniel Solander, Joseph Banks, and Bank’s staff of artists, scientists, and botanists joined Captain James Cook’s first expedition aboard the H.M.S Endeavour. Cook’s mission was to travel to the South Seas to view an astronomical event – the transit of Venus across the sun. After that, they were to receive orders for the rest of the expedition. The voyage lasted three years, and included visits to Madeira, Brazil, Argentina, French Polynesia, New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Java, South Africa and St. Helena.

Solander did not keep a journal, but you can get a feel of the expedition by reading the journal written by artist Sydney Parkinson (1745-1771). He describes through words and art, the expedition and the scientific team assembled by Banks. On the journey they collected 30,300 plants, from 3,607 species and 110 plant families. They identified 1,400 new species. They also collected samples of birds, fish, mollusks, and shells. Many of these came from Botanist Bay in Australia (later renamed to Botany Bay).

Solandra maxima – photo by Forest Starr and Kim Starr

 

Back in England

Upon return to England in 1771, Solander resumed his post at the British Museum, and became Banks’s secretary and librarian. Solander was presented to King George, and received an honorary Doctorate from Oxford University (he had never finished his degree at Uppsala University). There was talk of Banks and Solander joining Cook's second expedition, but it fell through. From 1772 – 1773, Banks and Solander made several smaller scientific expeditions. Carl Linnaeus and others in the scientific community were dismayed that Solander made these other expeditions before publishing his findings from the first.

• Scotland and Iceland (July 12, 1772 – November 20, 1772) – returned with Icelandic plant species, and lava specimens from Mount Kekla.
• Wales (1773) – collected native plant species

In 1773, Solander was appointed keeper of natural history at the British Museum. He lived with Banks in London amidst the collections in his care, and died on 13 May 1782, of a stroke. Although Linnaeus expressed disappointment in choices that Solander made, it was Solander that cared for Linnaeus’s son in England during an illness. Linnaeus and others expressed disappointment that Solander did not publish more, but, perhaps with his outgoing personality, he favored a more balanced life. I appreciate Bank’s tribute in a letter (from an annotated article by Roy Rauschenberg):

Solander’s mode of living in England you know as well as I. During the brightest part of the day he honored botany; but his proclivity for companionship never allowed him to return to the museum at night. Even if he had sought that action his countless friends would not have allowed it.

Banks goes on to praise Solander’s abilities for description:

He possessed an unusual charming ability to describe the curiosities in the British Museum with taste; so that men as well as ladies attended in those hours when they knew that Solander was responsible for showing the collection. Indeed his tour was so stimulating and pleasing, he was not only sought by learned men, but the King (George III) himself had the graciousness to honor him with his private discussion.

Learn More:

• Journal of artist Sydney Parkinson describing the trip – A Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas, in His Majesty's Ship, The Endeavour. Faithfully transcribed from the Papers of the late Sydney Parkinson, Draughtsman to Joseph Banks, Esq. on his late Expedition with Dr. Solander, round the World: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Journal_of_a_Voyage_to_the_South_Seas,_in_His_Majesty%27s_Ship,_the_Endeavour.
• Plants discovered by Banks, Solander and the scientific team – Illustrations of the Botany of Captain Cook's Voyage Round the World in H.M.S. Endeavour in 1768-71, edited by James Britten and published by the British Museum (London, 1905): http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/38665#page/1/mode/1up (see Plate 46 for Pleiogynium Solandri).
• Letter from Sir Joseph Banks, describing his friend and colleague annotated in an article by Roy Rauschenberg – A Letter of Sir Joseph Banks Describing the Life of Daniel Solander, Isis, Volume 55, Number 1, March, 1964, p. 66:  http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/227755 (read online version for free, but requires a logon account).

Daniel Solander in England

Daniel Solander arrived in London in June 1760s with letters of recommendation from Carl Linnaeus to John Ellis and Peter Collinson, two leading naturalists of the day. Ellis (1710-1776) was a linen merchant, who also specialized in the study of corals, and imported seeds from America. Collinson (1694-1768) was a plantsman and botanist who imported seeds from America via John Bertram. Solander established himself in London, and set out to learn English. He made two botanical journeys in the south of England:

• December 20, 1760 - early February 1761
• Midsummer 1761 - August 10, 1761

When he was not in the field, Solander enjoyed London society. He was gregarious and well liked. In 1761, Solander received news that Linnaeus's daughter married a young officer (the accounts vary - in some, Solander’s affections waned, in others, she married and Solander was so heartbroken that he became a bachelor). Also in 1761, Solander was offered the chair of botany at the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. On the advice of Collinson and other colleagues, Solander turned down the position, and informed Linnaeus he intended to stay in England. Linnaeus was disappointed that Solander would not succeed him at the University of Uppsala.

Solander box - photo by Marie Brannon

 

From 1761 to 1762 Solander classified and organized material from his journeys in London and southern England. He was assisted by John Ellis. In 1763, driven by the need for a more secure income, Solander accepted a position arranged by Collinson as an assistant librarian at the British Museum. Solander’s task was to catalog the natural history collection. In this position, Solander promoted the Linnaean system of classification, and helped pioneer museum curation (possibly more so than had he accepted the position at University of Uppsala). He developed a storage method for specimens, called the Solander box.

In 1764, Solander became a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1765, he worked on a descriptive catalog for the private museum of the Duchess of Portland. During this time, Solander met Joseph Banks, who traveled in the same circles, both professionally and socially. In 1768, Banks invited Solander to join the team of scientists, botanists, and artists he was assembling to join Captain James Cook’s expedition. Solander accepted the position, and took a leave of absence from the British Museum.

Learn More:

• Bibliographical sketch of Daniel Solander, by L.A. Gilbert: http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/solander-daniel-2677
• The Linnaean Correspondence – search the archives for letters to and from Daniel Solander: http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/index.php

Linnaeus Apostle: Daniel Solander

Daniel C. Solander (1733 - 1782) was a Linnaeus apostle who moved from his homeland in Sweden to England, and circumnavigated the world as a botanist with Captain James Cook. Solander was born February 19, 1733 in Piteå, Gammelstad, Norrbotten, Sweden to his father, Vicar Carl Solander, and mother, Magdalena Bostadia. As a boy he attended Piteå trivial school.

In July 1750, at the age of 17, Solander enrolled in Uppsala University, and boarded with his wealthy uncle. He studied language and humanities for two years, and then switched to natural history. Solander continued his studies, and worked with Carl Linnaeus on several projects. Some were botanical, such as making trips to Lapland to collect plants, and editing papers and manuscripts. Other projects had to do with organizing and classifying collections:

• Summer 1752 – Solander and Linnaeus helped organize Queen Lovisa Ulrika's Cabinet of Natural History at Drottningholm's Castle.

• Christmas 1752 – they organized Carl Gustav Tessin's Cabinet of Natural History in Stockholm.

• Summer 1753 – they classified and organized the collections at the Royal Castle at Ulriksdal.

Daniel C. Solander in later years – from a portrait by William Parry (public domain).

 

This was a great training ground for implementing the Linnaeus method of classification. These experiences may have also revealed natural interests and abilities in Solander. During his student years at University, Solander built a significant private library, herbarium, and cabinet of natural history. Linnaeus saw great potential in Solander. He promised Solander his daughter in marriage, and eventually his position at Uppsala University. In 1789, Linnaeus arranged for Solander to travel to England on scholarship to collect plant specimens and further his education.

Learn more:

• The IK Foundation – provides detailed information about natural and cultural history, including Carl Linnaeus and his apostles: http://www.ikfoundation.org/ifacts/danielsolander.php

• The Linnaean Society of London – provides a comprehensive online collection of information, correspondence, specimens, art, and documents: http://www.linnean-online.org/

• Linnaeus The Compleat Naturalist, by Wilfrid Blunt. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford (2004). Chapter 6, “The Apostles,” pages 193 – 194.

Transporting Plants

A challenge for botanists and plant collectors was getting plant specimens to their destinations. Most of the collectors we have studied so far, transported their collections by ship. Besides the ultimate threat of running aground or sinking, their were other challenges – ships were small and crowded; resources like fresh water were limited; and salt air and water could easily claim the specimens. How did these botanists transport their collections? Penelope Hobhouse sheds some light on the question in her book, The Story of Gardening.

• Seeds – this may have been the easiest way to transport plants, in their seed form. Seeds are small and compact, and contain everything needed to germinate the plant. They can be dried, and can last a long time. According to Hobhouse, seeds were sometimes coated in beeswax and wrapped in waxed cotton and paper, or bottled and packed in boxes of salt to keep them fresh and protected.

• Live plants – sometimes living plants were transported. Many containers were devised for the purpose, including woven baskets, and wooden crates. The plants required constant care on the journey to ensure their survival, and many plants died. In 1833, Dr. Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward developed miniature greenhouses for transporting live plants. These “Wardian cases” provided a sealed ecosystem for the plants during their voyage, and reduced loss.

Banksia serrata specimen collected from Botany Bay, Australia by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander
(the plastic bag is obviously modern)

• Dried specimens – botanists collected plant parts, including seeds, leaves, and stems. Each specimen was dried thoroughly, and then pressed between sheets of paper for preservation. Stacks of pressed specimens were clamped together between wood planks, to protect them from damp conditions on their way to the herbariums of Europe.

In these ways, plants traveled the world to new destinations for study, commerce, and enjoyment.

Sir Joseph Banks

Sir Joseph Banks (1743 – 1820) was a key player in the movement of plants in the 1700s. He was born in London, England to wealthy parents, and developed an interest in botany when he was 14. He collected local plant specimens, and learned all he could from the local women who collected herbs. He was sent to Oxford for formal schooling. Bank’s father died in 1761 when he was 18. At 21 Banks inherited great wealth, but determined to put it to good use in pursuit of his interests.

Joseph Banks (photograph of a painting by Joshua Reynolds)

While at Oxford, Banks met Linnaeus apostle Daniel Carl Solander, who had been sent to London in 1760 to catalog the garden of Peter Collinson, and then accepted an assistant’s post at the British Museum. Banks and Solander became friends and colleagues. Instead of taking “The Grand Tour of Europe” that was popular with young men of his class, Banks went on a fishery protection patrol in Newfoundland and Labrador, and collected live and dried plant specimens.

Solander introduced Banks to the scientific community in London. At the age of 23, Banks was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Banks promoted the idea of accompanying Captain James Cook on his first voyage of geographical and scientific exploration, and joined the expedition as chief naturalist at the age of 25. He funded additional artists, botanists, and scientists to join, including Solander. Between 1768 and 1771 the HMS Endeavor visited Africa, South America, New Zealand, Australia, and Tahiti. They made many scientific discoveries, and collected many plant specimens.

Banksia ericifolia native to Australia

Upon return to London in 1771, Banks became President of the Royal Society, and worked with King George III to expand Kew Gardens. Through his influence and means, Banks sent botanists and collectors all over the world; commissioned botanical artists; corresponded with scientists and botanists; and added to the collections at Kew Gardens and the British Museum. His plant and geographical knowledge enabled him to consult on many projects, including the ideas to transport breadfruit to the West Indies on the HMS Bounty, and establish a penal colony at Botany Bay in Australia. Banks knew many influential people of his day, including Ben Franklin in America, and Carl Linnaeus in Sweden. He is honored with a genus of plants named after him, Banksia.

Garden History – Plants on the Move

This year I’m taking a side trip from the usual course of garden history study. Earlier this year we focused on gardens of the Americas to learn more about how gardens were developing independently in the New World (see Garden History – The Americas). In parallel, we have been learning more about several of the Linnaeus apostles, who were sent out in the 1700s to spread the word about the new taxonomy promoted by Carl Linnaeus, and to collect plant specimens from all over the world (see The Linnaeus Apostles). Now we are focusing on gardening history through the lens of “plants on the move”, using a chapter from Penelope Hobhouse’s book, The Story of Gardening.

Ships transported seeds, dried plant specimens, and live seedlings all over the world.

According to Hobhouse, in Chapter 6, “Plants on the Move: Botanists, Collectors, and Artists”, in the wake of the Renaissance there was a shift in the relationship between people and plants. New professions and avocations were born, and everyone became enamored with plants. Explorers collected them, botanists studied them, artists depicted them, nurserymen propagated and sold them, entrepreneurs looked for ways to profit from them, physicians employed their healing properties, and enthusiasts grew them. With advances in printing, books and prints became more readily available so information spread quickly. Hobhouse cites three major plant sources in this era:

• Old World and Levant – collectors became enamored with bulbs and plants from the Mediterranean and the Levant (an old term for Turkey).  European plant collectors in the 1600s became enthralled with tulip bulbs, which become a commodity for a short time (“Tulip Mania”). The bubble burst, but the interest in bulbs and plants remained. 
• The Americas – the trees and shrubs discovered in North America were also in high demand. The American botanist John Bertram of Philadelphia collaborated with European distributors to exchange plants and seeds. Carl Linnaeus praised Bertram as a botanist, and our Linnaeus apostle, Pehr Kalm, worked with Bertram – see Pehr Kalm in North America). According to Hobhouse, a more naturalistic gardening movement was emerging in the early 1700s, and the plants from America were ideal for this style.
• Exotics – collectors were sent out by botanical gardens and private enthusiast to collect plants from all over the world, including Asia, Australia, Africa, South America, and the tropics. These exotics were embraced and grown in gardens and hot houses far from their native climates. 

Hobhouse writes from a Western perspective, especially the English point of view, but Britain was a key player in the botanical exchange. It is good to keep in mind that plant exchanges have taken place all through history. Consider the Silk Road linking East and West; cultural exchanges between countries, such as Japan and China, and France and Russia; and migrations of people groups. These were all opportunities for plant movement, but the post-Renaissance era of exploration, colonization, and quest for economic gain coupled with advances in technology, accelerated the movement of plants across the globe like never before in history.

Carl Peter Thunberg in Asia

Carl Peter Thunberg sailed by Dutch East Indies Company ship from Cape, South Africa on March 2, 1775 for Japan, at the age of 32. He was now fluent in Dutch, and a proficient plant collector, scientist, and physician. They stopped in Batavia, Jakarta, an important capital and center for the Company, and stayed a month, and then continued their journey on June 21, 1775. They arrived in Nagasaki, Japan on August 14, 1775.

Japan

The Japanese, fearing foreign influence, allowed minimal contact with outsiders, which was limited to the Chinese and Dutch. All Dutch foreigners were required to stay on the man-made island of Deshima, where the Dutch East India Company had a trading post, connected to Nagasaki by bridge. Thunberg acted as surgeon for the voyage, and his friendly manner and generous nature built trust with local Japanese doctors. Soon they were bringing plant specimens and seeds to him for his collection and to send to his patrons, along with information about their use. He was not able to see plants in situ, and did not realize that some were garden plants, many of which had been introduced from China in early cultural exchanges.

Japanese Black Pine (Pinus Thunbergii) - frequently used in bonsai (Creative Commons)

This trust opened doors for more contacts and opportunities for second-hand plant collecting and information gathering. Thunberg’s main interest was botany, but he recorded details about all aspects of Japanese culture. He genuinely admired the Japanese and enjoyed being an ambassador of Western culture and scientific knowledge. Over time he was invited to take day trips to Nagasaki to collect plants for making medicine, and to search for fodder for the Company’s animals. He was also invited to travel to Yeddo (modern day Tokyo) to honor the Shogun Teharu (who Thunberg refers to as the Emperor). Their party traveled in comfort and style, in sharp contrast with his travels by ox cart in South Africa.

Journey Home

After fifteen months in Japan, Thunberg started his journey home. He left Deshima on November 23, 1776, and returned to Java. There he spent six months collecting specimens, and was offered a job, which he turned down. On July 5, 1777, he left for Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka), where he collected many plants and wrote a paper on the cinnamon industry. On February 6, 1778, he set sale for Cape, South Africa. He stayed for 18 days and learned that Carl Linnaeus had died and his son succeeded him at University. Thunberg was offered the post of Demonstrator in Botany at University. Thunberg arrived in Amsterdam on October 1, 1778, and was welcomed by his friend Nicolaus Burman. He also received his salary and a large bonus for completing his obligations to the Dutch East India Company.

Thunberg used the money to spend the winter of 1778 in London. There he was provided for by Daniel Solander and J. Drvander (also students of Linnaeus). He met Sir Joseph Banks, a wealthy botanist who had also accompanied Captain James Cook on his first voyage, along with Solander, and was President of the Royal Society in London. Banks gave Thunberg access to his natural history collection for study. In the British Museum, Thunberg also studied the botanical collections, notes, and drawings of Engelbert Kaempfer, the only other European who had worked as a physician in Japan 100 years before Thunberg.

Sweden

Thunberg left for Sweden on January 30, 1779, and arrived on March 14, 1779, after eight and half years in the field. He was received by King Gustav, and earned financial support for future botanical projects. Thunberg worked at Uppsala University as a professor, and then succeeded the younger Carl Linnaeus upon his death as chair. He published many articles and books, including the important Flora Japonica and Flora Capensis, and was a lecturer on botany and Japanese culture. He corresponded with many botanists from his travels, including several from Japan.

In 1784, Thunberg married Brigitta Charlotta Ruda. They had no children together, but adopted several foster children. He established a new garden at the University, using land from King Gustav. He described nearly 1900 new plant specimens, and donated his large collection of 23,510 specimens (all labeled and documented) to Uppsala University. Thunberg died on August 8, 1828, several days after requesting a carriage ride around the garden and grounds at Uppsala University. He was loved and admired by his students, friends, and colleagues.

Learn more:

• Flora Capensis (download PDF, in Latin): http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/3649#/summary
• Flora Japonica (download PDF, in Latin): http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/3681#/summary
• Japan Extolled and Decried: Carl Peter Thunberg and the Shogun’s Realm, 1775-1796, annotated and introduced by Timon Screech (purchase or rent, in English): http://www.amazon.com/Japan-Extolled-Decried-Thunbergs-1775-1776-ebook/dp/B000OT8EJ6#reader_B000OT8EJ6

Carl Peter Thunberg in Africa

Carl Peter Thunberg sailed from Amsterdam for the Dutch colony of Cape in South Africa on December 30, 1771, at the age of 28. During the three and a half month journey to Cape, Thunberg worked as an assistant to the ship’s surgeon. Once in Cape, he worked for the Burmans and other Dutch sponsors on his natural history assignments. His goals were to become fluent in Dutch for his expedition to Japan, and to carry out botanical assignments to evaluate the commercial potential of African plants.



Blackeyed Susan Vine (Thunbergia alata) – photo by Jeff deLonge (Creative Commons)

Thunberg lived in Cape, and used it as a base for his research. A few days before his arrival, another Linnaeus apostle, Anders Sparrman, arrived to work as a tutor, and collect plants in his free time (he was 23, gregarious, and had already been to China to collect plants). The two collaborated somewhat, but Thunberg seemed to prefer working on his own. Seven months later, Sparrman joined Captain Cook as a botanist and surgeon on his second expedition. From 1772 to 1775, Thunberg conducted local botanical forays, and three major surveys along the coast and inland. These surveys were carried out during September through January, coinciding with the rainy season when plants were in bloom.

Expeditions:

• The Cape (1772, 1773, and 1775; and later in 1778 on his way home from Japan) – Thunberg explored the local environment looking for plant, animal, and fossil specimens; corresponded with fellow botanists; prepared reports of his findings; and sent manuscripts and materials to Linnaeus and his sponsors.
• First journey into Caffraria to Gamtoos River (September 1772 - January 1773) – Thunberg and his party travelled by wagon, drawn by oxen rather than horses, since oxen could better withstand the heat and lack of water. They stayed at Company farms along the way, and were impressed with the hospitality they received. His journal entries include observations about the countryside, plants, animals, and geology.
• Second journey into Caffraria to Sundays River (September 1773 - January 1774) – Thunberg headed northwest into the interior of South Africa, with fresh supplies and a new wagon. He travelled with Francis Masson, a Scottish gardener who had arrived with Sparrman the previous year, and had had been sent to collect African plants for Kew Gardens. Thunberg describes oxen and sheep farming, and aloe farming practices. He had harrowing experiences crossing swollen rivers, but faced the challenge calmly. Thunberg notes Hottentot rite of passages, and marriage customs.
• Third journey to Roggeveld (September 1774 - December 1774) – Thunberg travelled inland from the coast, stopping at Company farms. He obtained Lachenalia aloides while trying to find a short cut through some jagged rocks to the mountain he wished to climb. He collected African minerals, which he presented to the Royal Academy's Mineral Cabinet at Uppsala. They visited the Heerenlogement cave, and he remarked on the signatures on the cave wall (he did not leave his), and the ficus tree that had taken root in a fissure (the tree still lives today). A wagon accident caused the loss of part of his plant collection. Thunberg describes Hottentot customs, and notes several plants they used for food and beverage. He describes the dry terrain and people who inhabit the land – both colonists and native populations.

Thunberg collected close to 3000 plant specimens while in South Africa. A third of them were new discoveries. The genus Thunbergia is named after him. While in Cape, he also studied and documented species of Apionidae (Coleoptera). Interestingly, his specimens of this weevil, from the Zoological Museum of Uppsala University, have been reviewed recently to identify a possible new species of weevil (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3744141/).

 

Learn more:

• Travels at the Cape of Good Hope 1772-1775, by Carl Peter Thunberg (based on the English edition, London 1793-1775) – read entries from Thunberg’s journals
• The Linnaean Correspondence – search the archives for letters between Carl Peter Thunberg and Carl Linnaeus: http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/index.php

Linnaeus Apostle: Carl Peter Thunberg

Carl Peter Thunberg (1743 - 1828) was a Linnaeus apostle who traveled to South Africa, Japan, Java, and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He worked in the field for close to nine years, collecting plant and animal specimens, and published numerous books and papers about his expeditions and discoveries. Thunberg has been called the “father of South African botany” and the “Japanese Linnaeus” and is honored in both countries.

Thunberg was small, but strong and wiry. He was a competent doctor and botanist, and his actions show him as kind, considerate, and generous (in later years he helped over 200 doctoral students with their dissertations, without charging them a fee). Dr. Heinz Goerke (a modern Linnaeus scholar) observes “A striking feature of Thunberg’s works is their cold objectivity. His interest in nature was purely scientific. He never sought adventure, nor does it seem that the beauty of a foreign scene, the strangeness of new plants or the circumstances of their discovery particularly moved him. His principal concern was the practical value of what he found.” What a fascinating contrast for someone who spent so many years in the field, living a great adventure!

Carl Peter Thunberg portrait by von Krafft der Jungere (Public domain)

Thunberg was born in Jönköping in Smålander, Sweden on November 11, 1743 to Margaretha and Johan Thunberg, a bookkeeper at an iron foundry, and owner of a small shop. Carl’s father died when he was a boy, so his mother supported him and his brother by running the shop. She later married a merchant, which improved their circumstances. Although poor, Margaretha made sure her sons received the best education possible, with the plan for them to become accountants. Thunberg spent nine years at the Uppsala University studying Latin, Theology, Law, and Philosophy, and then earned a doctorate in medicine, studying under Linnaeus.

Europe

After University, Linnaeus arranged a small grant for Thunberg to travel and study abroad in Holland and France. He arrived in Amsterdam in October 1770 and spent a year with botanists Johannes Burman (1707 – 1779) and his son Nikolaas Laurens Burman (1733-1793). They were both impressed with Thunberg’s ability to name and classify plants in their collection without consulting any references. Thunberg studied medical practices in Paris during the year. On his return to Amsterdam, he learned that the Burmans had arranged for his employment with the Dutch East India Company for service in Japan. At the time Japan was closed to trade with all foreigners, except the Dutch. Thunberg would need to become Dutch – familiar with the Dutch colonies and fluent in the Dutch language!



Journey of Carl Peter Thunberg - Europe, South Africa, Japan, Java, and Ceylon

Learn more:

• The IK Foundation – provides detailed information about natural and cultural history, including Carl Linnaeus and his apostles: http://www.ikfoundation.org/ifacts/carlpeterthunberg.php
• The Linnaean Society of London – provides a comprehensive online collection of information, correspondence, specimens, art, and documents: http://www.linnean-online.org/
• Linnaeus The Compleat Naturalist, by Wilfrid Blunt. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford (2004). Chapter 6, “The Apostles,” pages 194 – 197.

Expeditions of Pehr Kalm

Pehr Kalm spent two and a half years in North America. Most of his time was spent in Philadelphia, and the nearby Swedish settlement of Raccoon, New Jersey (now Swedesboro). He explored the surrounding country side collecting plants and seeds to send to Linnaeus, and researching their uses and environment. He often took short trips in the area to expand his range, visiting new friends and colleagues. Later he took an extended trip up to French Canada. Most of his travel was by boat, following the many rivers and lakes in eastern North America.



Journey of Pehr Kalm - North America

North America

Timeline of Kalm’s travels in North America:

·         Philadelphia (1748-1749) – during the winter, Kalm spent time in Raccoon, where he also served as a lay minister for a Swedish church, whose rector, Johan Sandin, had died.

·         New York, United States (1748, 1749) – Kalm reports on trees and their uses, and on agriculture.

·         Pennsylvania, United States (1748, 1750)

·         Quebec, Canada (1749)

·         Montreal, Canada (1749)

·         Albany, United States (1749)

·         Niagara Falls, United States (1750) – Kalm writes a description of Niagara Falls.

North America to Sweden

Before leaving North America, Kalm married Anna, Johan Sandin’s widow. The Kalm’s left the continent via Philadelphia on February 13, 1751, and arrived in England in late April. After stays in London and Gothenburg, Sweden, they arrived in Stockholm, Sweden on June 3, 1751. Kalm took a Professorship in Economy at Åbo Academy, the Swedish university in Norway. There he established a botanical garden, published accounts of his travels, and taught until he died in 1771. He also became a minister. In Species Plantarum, Carl Linnaeus credits Kalm for 90 species (60 of them new, including his namesake, Kalmia).

Learn more:

• Summary of Pehr Kalm's life (though date of birth and place varies); also download the PDF version of his “Travels into North America” – volumes 1 and 2: http://www.americanjourneys.org/aj-117a/summary/index.asp
• Pehr Kalm at Trinity church in Raccoon Creek Swedesboro, New Jersey: http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WM47GR_Peter_Kalm_Trinity_Church_Swedesboro_New_Jersey_USA
• Pehr Kalm's travel articles, taken from his journal entries (see pages 398-400 for a list of plants in binomial form): http://international.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?intldl/ascfr:@field(DOCID+@lit(gcfrpi013_0384))