Reflections on 2013

Another year of gardening comes to a close. Last year I spent more time learning about gardens than gardening, so this year I tried to get a little more dirt under my nails! My vegetable garden was a bust; I realize that I have a deer problem that needs some creative attention. My tomato plants were especially targeted by my four-legged friends, but any fresh green sprout was fair game.

In 2013, Eden By The Bay continued exploring gardening in the Bay Area, with special focus on plant diseases. We looked at plant diseases in every major group (bacteria, plant parasites, water molds, nematodes, fungi), as well as viruses. After delving into how much can go wrong, it is amazing that anything grows at all! Thankfully, there is a built-in arms race between predator and prey, enabling each side to combat the other.

We explored gardens throughout the seasons – appreciating plants as they move through their seasonal cycles, and the hardscaping that provides the infrastructure. We visited public and private gardens, including the Ruth Bancroft garden, the Lakeside Park on Lake Merritt, Capitol Park and the Sacramento Historic City Cemetery, a secret garden in Berkeley, and the gardens of the Madonna Inn and Hearst Castle. We also went further afield to enjoy the tamed and natural places of the Presidio, Clear Lake in the Lake Counties, the deserts of Southern California and Bend, Oregon, and Duncan Garden at Manito Park in Spokane, Washington.

Diseases: oak gall Labels: plant diseases	 Nature: Presidio dunes Labels: nature, coastal dune
Gardens: Hearst Castle Labels: gardens, garden design, hardscaping	 History: Renaissance influence Labels: garden history, movie star plants

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We continued our study of garden history – focusing on European gardens (including Medieval gardens, Italian Renaissance gardens, and interpretations of Renaissance gardens throughout Europe). We continued looking for interesting garden elements, such as raised beds, roof gardens, and trellises; enjoying winter and summer movies that star the plant world; and cooking with holiday spices from all over the globe. Best of all, we celebrated family, friends, and gardens of the world!

Renaissance Christmas Carol

I spent a lot of time this year learning about the Renaissance and Renaissance gardens. For background I watched movies that depicted Renaissance gardens, read The Prince by Machiavelli, and watched the Showtime series, “The Borgias” (with eyes half-closed or covered during the gruesome scenes)! So I thought it would be interesting to learn about the kind of Christmas carol that might have been popular during the Italian Renaissance. One thing I realized is that the Italian city states had not yet been unified during the Italian Renaissance, so many languages and dialects were spoken. Consequently, there is no one representative Christmas carol sung by all.

However, I did learn about a Neapolitan carol called “Quanno nascette Ninno” (“When the child was born”). The melody and original lyrics were written by Alphonsus Maria de Liguori (1696 – 1787), a Neapolitan priest who founded the Redemptorist missionary order, ministered to the poor, and was later canonized. In 1744 he created a version of the Christmas hymn in Neapolitan, while staying in the city of Deliceto in the province of Foggia in southeastern Italy.

The lyrics were later translated into Italian, by Pope Pius IX (1792 - 1878) as "Tu scendi dalle stelle" ("From Starry Skies Thou Comest"). The translated version is a well-loved Christmas carol throughout Italy. Check YouTube for beautiful renditions of "Quanno nascette Ninno" and "From Starry Skies Thou Comest".

 

Merry Christmas to all!

Holiday Cooking – Poppy Seeds

This month I have researched some of the plants that flavor my holiday baking using J.O. Swahn’s The Lore of Spices. Today I’m looking at poppy seeds, which are an important ingredient in poppy seed muffins, bagels, breads, and cakes. I am especially fond of the lemon and poppy seed combination. One important research question – can you fail a drug test after ingesting poppy seeds in baked goods?

Papaver somniferum is in the Papaveraceae (poppy plant) family and native to the Near East and Central Asia. Today it is cultivated in Europe (Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, Greece, and Bulgaria), Turkey, North Africa, and India. Poppies were used in ancient times in mystery cult ceremonies, as a pain killer, and as a stomach-calming drug. Today, the milky sap of unripe poppy fruit is extracted for its opiates and pain-killing properties; and ripe poppy seeds are harvested for baking, curries, and poppy seed oil. Opium is used recreationally in some cultures.

Botanical illustration of Papaver somniferum from Koehler's Medicinal Plants.
Published before 1923 and public domain in the United States.

The poppy plant is an erect, glaucous annual that grows to four feet high. Leaves are coarsely toothed or lobed; lower leaves are short-petioled and upper leaves are clasping. Flowers are often doubles, to four inches across, in white, pink, red or purple. Petals may be fringed or with a dark spot at the base. Fruit is a seed pod filled with many tiny seeds (the poppy plant was used to represent fertility in ancient myths). According to MythBusters, the answer to the research question is YES. You can fail a drug test after ingesting poppy seeds in baked goods. Traces of the opiates remain in your system up to 48 hours after consumption, so eat that piece of holiday lemon-poppy-seed bread responsibly!

Christmas Traditions

Our son is home from University of Alaska, Anchorage for the Christmas holiday, and this year he brought his lovely girlfriend, E.J. from Shanghai, China. He very gallantly gave up his bedroom for her, opting to sleep in the guest room/study (knowing his sleep will be arrested for my 7:00 AM and 8:30 PM conference calls with Bangalore, India). My husband and I are delighted to have both of them here for Christmas!

E.J. is very interested in experiencing the full American Christmas experience. It’s a great time to evaluate what our family traditions are, what makes our traditions unique, and where to they differ? How do our traditions measure up to the noisy, glitzy, commercial portrayal you see in the catalogs and commercials? There is the Snow Village, and the Christmas tree of course, with the tradition of watching “It’s a Wonderful Life” while we decorate. There are several other holiday movies we watch, like George C. Scott’s “A Christmas Carol,” “A Christmas Story,” and “The Santa Clause.” There are the Disney Christmas stockings that we purchased on a visit to Disneyland in December one year.

I typically force some kind of bulb (paper whites, amaryllis, or tulips), and purchase poinsettias. We have accumulated a collection of Christmas mugs over the years, in which hot apple cider, egg nog, and hot chocolate are served. There are the goodies, like cookies, candies, and fudge, which we really shouldn’t eat (but do). Some of our traditions have become streamlined over the years, due to busy schedules (like the box holiday meals from Safeway). And of course, one or more of us usually catches a cold or the flu!

Some of the best traditions are just being together as a family and with friends – watching movies, talking, working on our projects, and going on outings. A highlight is attending the Christmas Eve candlelight service, singing and praying together, and experiencing the wonder of the season.

Holiday Cooking – Cardamom

This month I’m continuing my research into the plants that flavor my holiday baking. Today I’m learning about cardamom, which is used to flavor Scandinavian baked goods; sausages and ground meats; and Indian curry dishes. My burning question – how did a main ingredient in Indian curries end up in Swedish cookies and breads?

Botanical illustration of Elettaria cardamomum from Koehler's Medicinal Plants.
Published before 1923 and public domain in the United States.

Elettaria cardamomum is in the Zingiberaceae family (ginger plants), and is native to India, Ceylon, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. Cardamom grows wild in shady forests, and loves wet feet. It thrives at an altitude of 2600 – 5000 feet (800 – 1500 meters), and at a uniform temperature of 72 F. (22 C.). According to Jan-Öjvind Swahn, ancient Vedic texts mention cardamom as medicine 1000 years before Christ; Greeks and Romans used it for cooking and medicine; Vikings encountered it in Constantinople in the eleventh century and introduced it to Scandinavia. Cardamom was recorded north of the Alps in the thirteenth century, and in botanical literature during the Renaissance. It was blended with coffee beans by the Arabs, and chewed with betel leaves in Southeast Asia.

The cardamom plants is a deciduous perennial that grow to 10 feet high, with leaves to 2 ½ feet long and 3 ½ inches wide. The inflorescence grows up to 2 feet long; and bears many greenish-white blossoms, each with a wide lip in the middle. The fruit is an oval capsule, containing three chambers, each bearing up to 20 aromatic seeds. Propagation is by division of rhizomes, and by seeds; plants succeed in moist, shady places in warm climates. In cultivation, the plants require quite a bit of care, but are productive over a 10-15 year period. They are susceptible to weather conditions, insect damage, and plant diseases, such as the mosaic viruses. The cardamom capsules are harvested, dried, and distributed as whole seeds or ground.

Fungus Fair

Today is the 44^th Annual Fungus Fair, with the theme “A Celebration of Wild Mushrooms.” The event is being held in the San Francisco Fair Building in Golden Gate Park (9^th and Lincoln). This is a great opportunity to learn more about the mushrooms of the San Francisco Bay Area.

The Fungus Fair is sponsored by the Mycological Society of San Francisco. These people are goofy serious about mushrooms! And really, when you see some of the intriguing shapes and wide variety, you can see why.

Our rainy season kicks off growth of these amazing fruiting bodies. Collectors scour the wild and not so wild areas of the San Francisco Bay Area after a good rain, looking for fascinating samples. Some are poisonous, some are edible, and all are fascinating.

Holiday Cooking – Sugar Cane

I love the Christmas holidays, and relish the traditions, gift giving, decorations, and music that make it special. With a late Thanksgiving, there is less time for preparations, so only the most important items get done. High on the list is baking and cooking. For a short time, the palate is more important than the waistline! As in past years, I’m taking a look at some of the spices and ingredients that go into the new and traditional holiday recipes we use to celebrate the season, using the Lore of Spices, written by Jan-Öjvind Swahn. This year I’m starting with one of the most basic ingredients – sugar!

Saccharum officinarum is in the Poaceae family (also called Gramineae, the grass plants). This important family includes bamboo and grasses used in landscaping. Sugar cane originated in India, but its cultivated form is thought to have descended from a wild form that is no longer in existence (plants were bred to produce the best yield of sugar sap). The cultivated plants were traded and grown across the East Indies and Pacific Ocean, and often chewed to release the sweet flavor. At some point, Indians discovered the sap could be boiled into sugar syrup, which was used as a flavoring and a medicine.

Botanical illustration of Saccharum officinarum from Koehler's Medicinal Plants.
Published before 1923 and public domain in the United States.

According to Swahn, Indians began to dry sugar syrup into crystals five centuries before Christ, making it easier to transport and trade. The Chinese grew sugar cane as early as the fourth century A.D.; Persians in the sixth century (they also learned to refine sugar to remove impurities). Arabs grew and refined sugar using modern, chemical techniques in the eighth century. European crusaders came into contact with Arab sugar in the eleventh century, and European explorers grew the cane in their tropical colonies starting in the fifteenth century. Today sugar is grown all over the world in tropical and subtropical climates.

Sugar cane shoots can grow to 15 feet  high and up to two inches thick. The sap originates in the lower part of the cane. Leaves are deciduous and sheathed; inflorescence is panicled racemes; spikelets are in pairs (one sessile, and one pedicelled, both bisexual). Seeds are encased in glumes (basal bracts), lemma, and palea, with an external stigma like feathery antennae. The canes are cut every 12 – 15 months. The cane is crushed between rollers; the pressed plant parts are leached; and the liquid boiled to produce sugar syrup, then dried to form crystals.

All That the Rain Promises and More ...

After several good rains in the San Francisco Bay Area, we can start looking for mushrooms—the fruiting bodies of fungus! For some, this means gathering a delicious food source; for me, it means reveling in the wide variety of colors and shapes that pop up in the yard. I wanted a good resource for identifying mushroom varieties, and found All That the Rain Promises and More, by David Arora (Ten Speed Press, 1991). It is a “hip pocket guide to Western Mushrooms,” and companion to the author’s more comprehensive work Mushrooms Demystified (or MD).

The front and back end pages of the book provide diagnostic keys for quickly identifying mushrooms (gills, and no gills), and then finding information in the book. The introduction describes the book’s format, how to take a spore print, gear you need to collect mushrooms, ideal conditions for collecting them, and uses for mushrooms (cooking, medicine, mind altering, and dyeing yarn). The bulk of the book is dedicated to mushrooms organized by type, such as Chanterelles, Boletes, Puffballs, and Morels. Information for each entry includes key features, other features, where to find them, edibility, and special notes, as well as close up and clear photos of the mushrooms. Peppered through the text are recipes, and first-hand reports from mushroom hunters.

This handbook is a great resource and a lot of fun to read. I was amazed with the myriad shapes and sizes of the mushrooms depicted. Some of my favorites include the 50 pound puff balls, and the lacey morels. I love the deep black and violet shades of the Chanterelle, and the beautiful shades of dye produced by fairly plain mushrooms. I appreciated the section on deadly mushrooms, and was surprised that one of them is the classic red-capped specimen with white dots (Amanita muscaria) that is frequently used in children’s art!

Plant Diseases: Wrap Up

Delve into all the things that can go wrong with your plants via diseases of all types (bacteria, parasites, water molds, nematodes, fungi, and viruses), and the built-in arms race between predator and prey that keeps balance.

Plant distortions and diseases

Getting Started

Diagnose sick plant symptoms, and figure out what to do about it.

Sick Plant Symptoms
Sick Plant Resources
Sick Plant Clinic
Back to School – Plant Diseases (Aug 2012)
Plant Diseases Update (Oct 2012)
Finished Plant Diseases! (Dec 2012)

Plant Diseases

Learn about the main categories of plant diseases, and deep dive into examples of them all.

Plant Diseases – Bacteria Fire Blight   Crown Gall
Plant Diseases – Flowering Plant Parasites Mistletoe   Lichen (not a disease)
Plant Diseases – Water Molds Downy Mildew   Sudden Oak Death
Plant Diseases – Viruses Tomato Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV)   Grape Leafroll Associated Virus (GLRaV)
Plant Diseases – Nematodes Root Rot Nematodes   Spiral Nematodes
Plant Diseases – Fungi Black Spot of Rose (Ascomycetes)   Cedar-Apple Rust (Basidiomycetes)

Plant Diseases in Action

Head into the field to experience plant diseases all around us in the garden and nature.

SOD Blitz 2013
SODMAP App
SODBlitz Partnership
Mushrooms
Mistletoe in Bend
Clear Lake Plant Diseases
Discriminating Squirrels (Feb 2016)
Summer on the Iron Horse Trail (July 2019)

Books and Movies

Read about plant diseases and plant pathology, and enjoy films where plant diseases play a role.

Five Kingdoms
Essential Plant Pathology
All That the Rain Promises and More ...
Winter Movies 2013: Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind
Rosemary & Thyme: And No Bird Sings (Jan 2019)

Thanksgiving

Finally – it is Thanksgiving Eve, and I have one thing on my mind – turkey dinner! And mashed potatoes, stuffing, gravy, cranberry salad, and sweet potatoes. And, maybe pumpkin pie with whipped cream. OK, so I have a lot on my mind. I love this time of year – the traditions, trying something new, counting my blessings (and considering that some hardships may be a blessing in disguise).

Waiting for the turkey

Thinking of turkey, reminds me of a lunch-time walk out in Dublin, California last year. At the time, I was researching street trees through the seasons. It was fall – warm in the sun, bright blue sky, golden-brown leaves, and chilly around the edges. I spotted a herd of turkeys on the sidewalk ahead, but they seemed to scatter. I strode on. Gradually I became aware of a click- click sound behind me. I walked faster. The sound continued – click-click. I hurried on as the sound increased – click-click. I whirled around to find the herd of eight to ten turkeys following me, with the click-click of their claws on the pavement.

Part of me found this endearing – they were like baby ducks or geese, imprinted to follow anything that moves. Another part of me had the irrational thought that these birds are actually dinosaurs. Remember the scene in Jurassic Park where the cute, chicken-like dinosaurs with flaring hoods bring down a man by blinding him, then attacking him en masse? Luckily, I escaped.

I plan to enjoy my turkey dinner this year, enjoy the people around me, and thank God for the blessings and trials of life!

Cedar-Apple Rust (Basidiomycetes)

Cedar-apple rust (Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae) is caused by a fungus in the Basidiomycota phylum. The disease life cycle involves two types of trees – apple or crab apple (Malus genus), and red-cedar or juniper (Juniperus genus). The apple or crab apple is an aecial host (the host plant on which heteroecious rust fungus produces aecia and pycnia); and the red-cedar or juniper is the telial host (the host plant on which a heteroecious rust fungus produces telia, and sometimes uredinia).



Telial gall of cedar-apple rust on cedar, with spore horns withered after spore germination. Photograph courtesy C. W. Mims from the APS slide collection, Introduction to Smut and Rust Fungi.

Some vocabulary, because this is complex:

• Aecia – the fruiting body of a rust fungus in which the first dikaryotic spores (aeciospores) are produced. Aeciospores infect the alternate host (in this case, the juniper). Dikaryotic spores have two sexually compatible haploid nuclei per cell and divide simultaneously.
• Pycnia – the flask-shaped haploid fruiting body of a rust fungus bearing receptive hyphae and sexual spores.
• Telia – survival spore, or teliospores, produced by rust fungus in which germination occurs.
• Uredinia – asexual dikaryotic, often rust colored spores, capable of infecting the host species on which it is produced.

Basidiospores form on the germinating teliospores of a red-cedar or juniper gall. The basidiospores infect apple leaves to produce pycnia. Aeciospores are produced in blisterlike aecia on the lower surface of the apple leave. The aeciospores infect junipers only (not the apple tree). The disease is monocyclic, meaning one life cycle per growing season (versus polycyclic which is even more complicated)!

For management tips, see the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) site. Prevention is the best strategy – remove junipers that are within five miles of apple orchards, and avoid planting junipers near apple trees in the landscape (although damage is not extensive to apple trees, except in very wet years). Because the disease is monocyclic, you can effectively apply fungicide applications timed to protect the apple trees during the time when basidiospores are released. Plant apple and crabapple trees that are disease resistant.

Black Spot of Rose (Ascomycetes)

Black Spot of Rose (Diplocarbon rosae) is caused by a fungus in the Ascomycetes phylum. It is frequently found on rose bush leaves here in the Bay Area, especially during the winter or in the fog belt. Symptoms include black spots and yellowing on the upper surface of leaves. The fungus produces ethylene, which induces chlorosis (yellowing) of the leaves, and eventually abscission (leaf drop). Ethylene is a growth regulator that affects leaf drop, fruit ripening, and plant senescence; and can cause vascular wilt diseases. The black spots may have a feathery margin and may include fruiting bodies (best seen with a hand lens). Inside the fruiting body, microscopic sexual spores called ascospores are produced in sacs called ascus (pl. asci), and released upon maturity.

The fungus requires water to reproduce and grow, and can survive in fallen leaves and infected stems. Overhead sprinklers may keep leaves wet for long periods of time, and may splash the fungus from infected to uninfected plant material.

Black Spot of Rose, with chlorosis. Photo courtesy of C. Ash, available by APSnet via License to Copy.

For management tips, see the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) site. Prevention is the best solution – plant resistant rose bushes in a sunny location with plenty of room for air circulation; remove fallen leaves and infected plant parts; and do not let moisture stay on the leaves for more than seven hours. This means you should avoid watering with overhead sprinklers; and, if you spray the leaves to remove dirt or pests, do so early in the day so the leaves have a chance to dry. You can manage black spots on leaves using a combination of bicarbonate of soda and horticultural oil, or using Neem oil or fungicides.

Plant Diseases – Fungi

Fungi are the last category of plant diseases in our year-long study of plant diseases that can affect our plants in the San Francisco Bay Area. Other categories have included bacteria, plant parasites, water molds, nematodes, and viruses. Our resources have included information from my plant diseases course at Merritt College in Fall 2012, Essential Plant Pathology, and Five Kingdoms. As with other categories, many fungi are beneficial for the ecosystem, but others can cause disease or damage.

Fungi are incapable of producing their own food, so seek nourishment from dead organic matter or living plants. Fungi are composed of filaments, which excrete enzymes that decompose organic matter so that the cells can absorb the nutrients. An individual filament is a hypha (hyphae), and the mass of filaments is the mycelium. Some parasitic fungi produce toxins that help them invade a host; others produce mycotoxins that are poisonous, causing illness or death to animals or humans who ingest them.

White mycelia of a wood decay fungi - great on the forest floor, on your roof - not so much.

Hypha cells contain mitochondria, nuclei, and other organelles. Nuclei are haploid (one set of chromosomes). Cell walls are made of chitin (similar to the shells of crabs and exoskeleton of insects), rather than cellulose (the main component of plant cell walls), making fungi more closely related to animals than plants. Additionally, fungi use glycogen for food storage (similar to animals), rather than starch (as plants do). The hypha may grow into survival structures (called fruiting bodies) that produce spores, such as puff balls, mushroom, and conks. Fungi reproduce by sexual and asexual spores. Sexual spores ensure genetic diversity and adaptability; asexual spores are clones that ensure survivability.

The four major phyla of true fungi are Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, and Zygomycota. The phyla are called true fungi to distinguish them from organisms that were formerly classified as fungi, such as the water molds (or Oomycetes). The first two groups are especially important for plant diseases:

• Ascomycetes – bread and beer yeasts, morel mushrooms, and plant parasites that cause common diseases such as Chestnut blight, apple scab, leaf spots, Dutch Elm disease, post-harvest diseases, powdery mildews, and vascular wilts
• Basidiomycetes – root rots, rust fungi, smut fungi, wood decay fungi, turf grass diseases, and Sclerotium spp. blight

All parts of a plant—roots, stems, vascular system, trunks, flowers, and leaves—are susceptible to fungal diseases.

Cal at Mountain View Cemetery

I recently took the “UC Berkeley’s Blue and Gold” tour at the Mountain View Cemetery in Oakland. We visited the gravesites of some of the famous and infamous folks, buried in the cemetery, who have some connection to Cal. The Mountain View Cemetery tours are offered twice a month – the standard tour on the second Saturday of the month, and specialty tours—like the UC Berkeley tour—on the fourth Saturday. Docents lead the tours, telling fascinating and well-researched stories.

Henry Durant (1802 - 1875)

Some of my favorites include Reverend Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, which later became the University of California. He and his advisors decided not to create a Christian college, but rather one based on Christian principles. Another is Joseph LeConte, who was one of the first professors at the U.C. Berkeley, hired to teach geology, natural history, and botany. He was a friend of John Muir, a frequent visitor to Yosemite, helped co-found the Sierra Club, and has a glacier in Southeast Alaska named after him. LeConte’s headstone is a boulder from Yosemite. His brother John LeConte also taught science at the university, and is buried in the cemetery.

Julia Morgan (1872 - 1957)

 

Bernard Maybeck’s remains are in the Urn Garden; he taught engineering drawing at Cal, designed the Hearst Gymnasium for Women, and mentored Julia Morgan. Julia Morgan, also a Cal alumna, has a simple grave marker that includes the names of her parents and siblings. Apparently, she didn’t want a fancy headstone – “my work speaks for itself.” She worked with William Randolph Hearst to create Hearst Castle.

Charles Franklin Doe (1833 - 1904)

 

Charles Franklin Doe, who is buried in “Millionaire’s Row,” donated funds for the Doe Memorial Library at U.C. Berkeley (he was inspired by the library of Alexandria). Anna Head (of Head-Royce School fame) is buried here, as is Ida Louise Jackson (an African-American daughter of slaves who attended U.C. Berkeley to obtain her teaching degree in the 1920s).

Ida Louise Jackson (1902 - 1996)

 

I recommend this tour, or any tour offered by Mountain View Cemetery. It is a great way to spend several hours on a Saturday morning – surrounded by beautiful scenery, and in great company!

SOD Blitz Partnership

I love the idea of the SOD Blitz partnership between the UC Berkeley science community, the USDA Forest Service, and “citizen scientists” to gather data on Sudden Oak Death. A similar idea has been used to gather information about migration of birds, butterflies, and fish. It also reminds me of the crowdsourcing projects run on the web, using members of the online community to solve complex problems.

Tip blight symptoms on tanoak caused by P. ramorum. Photo by Joseph
O'Brien (Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License).

SOD Blitz participants are trained to look for symptoms, and to conduct testing on  specimens. The SOD Blitz project website provides information on training dates, symptoms, testing, and meetings.  The 2014 Spring SOD Blitz is currently being organized, so the training schedule has not yet been published. If you are interested in participating in a Blitz, check the website regularly for updates. In the meantime, there are plenty of workshops and lectures scheduled for Fall 2013.

SODMAP App

A free SODMAP application, with SOD Blitz research information, is available as a plugin to Google Earth. It can be installed on the desktop or on smart phones (Android and iPhone). The application shows you visually where SOD Blitz specimens were taken, and the test results. SODMAP categories include infected and uninfected trees, oaks, tanoaks, and water samples.



SODMAP application running on a desktop computer. Click on an icon to drill down to detailed information.

Icons on the map represent either a single record for one of these categories, or multiple records. Drill down to view detailed information, or to see multiple records and their details. Some trees are tagged, and checked every year. Others are sampled randomly from year to year.

This icon indicates a SOD infected tree - here a bay laurel (Umbellularia californica).

On smart phones with GPS, you have the added capability of the app identifying where you are, and automatically displaying details for your surroundings. This is great if you are out in the field. Currently I have SODMAP running on my desktop and iPad, and really enjoy scoping out the results of the San Francisco Bay Area SOD Blitz. 

The icon indicates a SOD infected oak or tanoak tree - in this case live oak (Quercus agrifolia).

SOD Blitz 2013

I recently attended a lecture at University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, or Cal) by Dr. Matteo Garbelotto, to summarize the results of the 2013 SOD Blitz. Dr. Garbelotto is an adjunct professor at UC Berkeley. He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Forestry from the University of Padua, Italy, and then completed his graduate and post-graduate work in forest pathology at UC Berkeley. He has been studying SOD since its discovery in California, and is an engaging speaker, making information accessible for both scholar and community. Fittingly, the lecture was held under a mature oak tree outside Tolman Hall on the UC Berkeley campus.

SOD Blitz—or Sudden Oak Death Blitz—refers to an event where professionals and trained “citizen scientists” join forces to fan out over Northern California, look for evidence of Sudden Oak Death, and gather specimens. The specimens are tested and analyzed in the lab. In this way, a lot of field data has been gathered in the last six years to study the introduction and spread of SOD in California. Data is published online, and available via a free app for Android or iPhone. Professionals include USDA Forest Service and the UC Berkeley Forest Pathology and Mycology Laboratory. SOD Blitz also refers to community outreach to inform the community about Sudden Oak Death.

Symptoms of ramorum leaf blight on California bay laurel. Photo by Joseph
O'Brien (Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License).

Several items interested me. In general, the overall infection rate of tanoaks and live oaks decreases after a dry year, and then spikes after a wet year. However, a comparison between 2012 and 2013 research shows some deviation - increases were observed in two colder areas, and decreases in hotter areas. This supports observations that the disease operates differently between coastal forests and inland forests. Infestation typically happens during the spring rains (March, April, May), and not the early rains in November, December, January, February), so you should avoid pruning during spring rains.

Plants such as bay laurel, Rhododendron, and Camellia are intermediate hosts for Phytophthora ramorum; removing them from the presence of a high value oak can reduce chances of its infection. Use of phosphonate to treat healthy oaks is very promising, but they are reevaluating delivery mechanisms, since plugs may cause damage to the trees. Additionally, Dr. Garbelotto observed that the disease is relatively slow moving, which is giving scientists a chance to study it. These lectures are offered periodically and well worth your time.

How to Identify Plants

After a visit to the poison garden, it is obvious that being able to identify plants is an asset. Today’s resource is a little book called How to Identify Plants, by H.D. Harrington. The book is published by Swallow Press books (Ohio University Press), with copyrights in 1957 and 1985; and illustrated by L.W. Durrell. Harold David Harrington (1903 - 1981) was a professor of botany and zoology at Colorado State University from 1944 through 1968, and the curator of the CSU Herbarium for 25 years. Harrington was an expert on edible and poisonous plants, grasses, and aquatic plants in Colorado and the West, and authored several books. His wife, Edith, was also a botanist, and assisted him with his specimen collecting forays and manuscripts. Two species are named in his honor – Penstemon harringtonii and Oenothera harringtonii.

The initial chapters describe why it is important to identify plants, and how plants are classified and named. The bulk of the book defines terms relative to plant parts, including the flower, inflorescence, underground parts, stems, leaves, fruits and seeds, and surfaces. Many illustrations enhance the definitions. Additional chapters provide helpful reference material, such as how to use keys to identify plants, how to collect and press plants, and what regional manuals and floras are available. The glossary provides access to the terms in alphabetical order.

This is a great book for beginners just learning the language of plants, and for experienced plant lovers who need a quick reminder of how to describe a leaf shape, or flower construction. The book is small enough to toss in a day pack, or keep on your desk.

Poison Gardens – Water Hemlock

Water hemlock (Cicuta douglasii) is a flowering perennial herbaceous plant in the carrot family (Apiaceae). The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) considers water hemlock the most poisonous plants in the Western United States, with a range from Alaska to California. Several other plants may be mistaken for water hemlock, including poison hemlock (Conium maculatum – used in the poisoning death of Socrates), wild parsnips, and other herbs or perennial plants).

Water hemlock. Photo by Barry Breckling, used under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) license.

The heavy scented plant grows up to 8 feet tall (2.5 meters), with a sturdy, hollow stalk; small white flowers in terminal compound umbels; leaves decompounded (side veins lead to notches, not to tips, at the outer margins); poisonous roots; and slightly flattened fruits.  The thick rootstalk includes several chambers containing the poisonous compound cicutoxin, which is an unsaturated aliphatic alcohol (although all parts of the plant are poisonous).

 Cicutoxin works on the central nervous system. Symptoms include nervousness, excessive salivation and frothing, muscular twitches, dilation of the pupils, rapid pulse and breathing, tremors, violent convulsions, and death from asphyxiation and cardiovascular collapse. A very small amount can cause death in people, pets, and livestock. Contact a poison control center immediately if symptoms occur.

The plant is found in riparian areas, near stream banks, bogs, and marshy areas. It can be used in a wild or bog landscape, but may not be an appropriate choice for small children, pets, or livestock.

Poison Gardens – Purple Nightshade

A couple of years have passed since we last visited the poison garden (California Buckeye, Poison Oak, and Stinging Nettle). Halloween seems the perfect time for another foray! Many plants in the San Francisco Bay Area have some level of toxicity, enabling them to fend off predators.

Purple nightshade (Solanum xanti) is a perennial, flowering, evergreen shrub that is native to the Western United States, including California. It grows to 35 inches high, with a hairy stem; leaves that are lance shaped to oval, somewhat lobed, and 2 - 3 inches long; a distinctive umbel-shaped inflorescence with purple-blue flowers up to an inch and half wide; and a green berry fruit that is ½ - ¾ inches wide. Nightshade can thrive in a variety of environments, including chaparral, conifer forests, and oak woodlands.

Purple Nightshade (Solanum xanti) - photo by Dawn Endico,
taken on Mitchell Canyon trail, Mt. Diablo, Northern California. (Jepson)

 

Nightshade is toxic, as are other members in the Solanaceace family. All parts of the plant are poisonous, especially the unripe fruit. Toxicity is from Solanine and glycol-alkaloids, chaconine, and solasodine. There is no antidote for Solanum poisoning. Symptoms include:

• Cardiovascular system (tachycardia, arrhythmia, and hypotension)
• Central nervous system (delirium, psychomotor, agitation, paralysis, coma, and convulsion)
• Gastrointestinal track (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea)

The plant is desirable in the landscape, as it is drought-tolerant, tolerates clay soil, grows under native oak, is deer resistant, and commonly blooms from January to May. Since the plant is poisonous, it may not be an appropriate choice for small children or pets.

Spiral Nematodes

Nematodes can be a threat to turfgrass, and have been found in golf courses, parks, and lawns in the San Francisco Bay Area. Spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus spp.) are one of many nematode species that are found in the soil. Spiral nematodes have a wide host range, and do not cause excessive damage, but they can reduce the vigor of plants in a monoculture host like turf grass. Mature spiral nematodes are up to 1.2 mm long, and are so named because they curl up into a spiral when dead or relaxed. They are ectoparasites, meaning they feed outside the cell, although some may act as partial endoparasites—inducing growth of a food cell in which they bury their head to feed for long periods of time, before moving on to create a new food cell. These food cells do not grow like a gall, but the cell composition does change.

Spiral nematodes are all females, reproduce without mating, and lay individual eggs in the soil (unlike the root rot nematode that lays an egg mass). The first molt occurs within the egg (J1). If moisture is present in the soil when the egg hatches (J2), the nematode is motile and works its way to a plant root where it can feed. The nematode undergoes three more molts (J3 and J4), before becoming a mature adult. Populations are highest in late summer and early fall and lowest in spring when cold temperatures inhibit reproduction.

Spiral nematode turf damage is associated with bluegrass and Bermuda grass. Above ground symptoms include stunting, reduced plant vigor, yellowing or brown patches in the turf, and areas that succumb to weeds. There is typically a “hot spot” or dead zone, which is heavily infested. These symptoms can have other causes, so soil analysis is required to diagnose the problem: http://youtu.be/taW-VM-4IRw

For management tips, see the Integrated Pest Management(IPM) site. Prevention is the best approach, but strategies like crop rotation are difficult for turf. Chemical treatments exist, but some of them cause damage to turf, or must be repeated, since they also kill beneficial organisms that keep other diseases at bay. See UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Turfgrass (page 72) for additional information.

Root Rot Nematodes

Root-rot nematodes are from the genus Meloidogyne, and thrive in hot climates with short winters. They are not host-specific, and infect the roots of a wide host range, including flowers and vegetable crops (tomato, green pepper, corn, grains, and so forth). They are sedentary endoparasites—living and feeding from within their hosts.

Females lay their eggs in a gelatinous mass on a root gall surface; ensuring a protective, moist environment in which the eggs develop. The first molt occurs within the egg (J1 stage). After the eggs hatch, the second-stage juveniles (J2) are motile. They leave the egg; penetrate the root with their stylets, just behind the root cap; and secrete a liquid that stimulates growth hormones in the cells, causing them to divide and swell. This forms root galls that become permanent feeding sites. After molting through two more juvenile stages, (J3 and J4), reproductively mature females lay a new batch of eggs. This lifecycle occurs over the course of several weeks, so, in the right environmental conditions, plants can become infected very quickly. If the galls become separated from the roots, the eggs can exist in the soil for years, until the right conditions and a suitable host are available.

Galls on carrot from root-rot nematode. Photo by Claudia Nischwitz.
Copyright, ASPnet.

Above ground, plants exhibit symptoms that are similar to any disease that harms the root system, including stunted growth, wilting, and yellowed leaves. Reduced crop yield also results. To help with diagnosis, it is necessary to have the soil analyzed and to check the roots for galls, if at all possible.

For management tips, see the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) site. Since the eggs can remain in the soil for years, management is difficult. The solution is prevention – using resistant plant varieties; rotating crops so the nematodes cannot continue their lifecycles from season to season; leaving soil fallow periodically; amending the soil to keep it healthy; planting when nematodes are less active; and keeping infected plants or material from contaminating uninfected areas. Soil solarization, the process of heating the top 8 - 12 inches of the soil, can temporarily reduce the nematode population. Currently no chemical or soil fumigants are available to the home gardener.

Plant Diseases - Nematodes

This time I’m researching nematodes, which are non-segmented round worms found in soil, water, and extreme environments such as deserts and ice fields. A few can be seen with the naked eye, but most are tiny and require magnification. For resources I’m using Essential Plant Pathology, information from my plant diseases course at Merritt College in Fall 2012, and Five Kingdoms. Keep in mind that most nematodes are beneficial – they aerate the soil, consume detritus, feed on bacteria and other small life forms, and circulate organic and mineral soil components. Others cause considerable damage to crops, turf, and plants in the landscape. Nematodes can be found in the San Francisco Bay Area.

Nematodes are categorized as Eukarya in the Animalia kingdom. About 10% of all nematodes are plant parasites, and require a living host (obligate parasites). They are aquatic and typically live, feed, and move in the soil. They use a specialized feeding structure—called a stylet—to penetrate plant tissue, probe, secrete proteins and polysaccharides, and ingest cellular contents. Most nematodes are migratory and move from cell to cell to feed (ectoparasites). Others are sedentary and remain embedded in a plant throughout their lifecycles (endoparasites); some endoparasites induce formation of specialized feeding sites, such as galls, where they live and feed. A few do not fit either of these categories.

The female nematode lays hundreds of hardy eggs (some species do not require male fertilization of the eggs). The eggs can exist in soil for years or decades, until the right environmental conditions exist for them to infect a plant. Their life cycle includes four juvenile stages. Nematodes molt, shedding the outside cuticle and part of the lining of the stylet, from stage to stage as they grow. Juveniles look like miniature adults through all stages (they do not undergo a metamorphosis from stage to stage).

Take a look at several nematodes; of special interest (1) views of the stylet at 57, 107, and 145 seconds, (2) a root rot nematode at 159 seconds, and (3) a needle nematode at 202 seconds: http://youtu.be/Qf8oGjqyXFc

On the Roof at MOMA

I am always on the lookout for roof top gardens. They can be elaborate and extensive, or a quiet and private space. On one of our son’s visits home from University of Alaska, Anchorage, we visited the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (or MOMA) to view their art collection. The building was designed by Jensen Architects (an international firm based in San Francisco), and is very distinctive.

One of the fun discoveries was the Carolyn and Preston Butcher Garden Terrace, with its roof top sculpture garden and small coffee bar. We spent part of our MOMA visit on the roof, enjoying the combination of closed and open air space, and interesting sculptures. I also enjoyed the chance to study the raised planting areas and choice of vegetation. It was simple, yet very satisfying.

Carolyn and Preston Butcher Garden Terrace (MOMA) - raised bed

The museum closed earlier this summer for a three-year renovation project. See their web site for information about their off-site exhibition this fall (http://www.sfmoma.org/). You can catch a glimpse of the Garden Terrace in the short video “Trailer for Stories from the Evacuation” (fast forward to 1:11).

Clear Lake Plant Diseases

I’m afraid my Plant Diseases class from Merritt College in Oakland has despoiled me – I am always on the lookout for plant diseases! End-of-summer is a great time to spot them, as many plants have spent their reserves on reproduction, and are more vulnerable to attack. Here are some of the diseases I spotted in Clear Lake; oaks seem especially hard hit.



Sudden Oak Death –  I wasn't close enough for direct inspection, but this looks like SOD from afar; caused by the water mold, Phytophthora ramorum. 

Oak Gall – these little "nipples" are galls caused by asexual reproduction by the oak gall wasp.
When the wasp lays its eggs, hormones kick off a type of genetic engineering to create the perfect nursery (the gall).

Oak Apple Gall – this "strange fruit" indicates sexual reproduction by the oak gall wasp.

Tent Caterpillar – we found these gauzy structures all over foliage.
The residents had already moved on.

In many cases, these diseases do not cause permanent damage. An organism is simply taking advantage of a situation, and working through its own life cycle. After the class, seeing plant disease is not necessarily alarming. Plants in nature are rarely perfect; instead, they are teaming with all sorts of life forms. Learning to enjoy the whole ecosystem of a plant, both good and bad, can add to the enjoyment of nature as well as the garden. And raising your tolerance for imperfection can lower the need to combat the imperfect with pesticides.